If you've ever lived in a close-knit community, you're likely familiar with the peculiar charm and, at times, the not-so-charming aspects of having nosy neighbors. In the quaint town of Minersville, the term "nosey neighbors" takes on a whole new meaning, weaving a tapestry of curiosity, community bonds, and the occasional privacy invasion.
1. The Charm of Minersville Living (H1)
Nestled amidst rolling hills and historic architecture, Minersville stands as a testament to small-town living. Its charming streets and friendly faces often create a sense of camaraderie among its residents, making it an ideal place to call home.
2. Unmasking the Nosey Neighbors Phenomenon (H2)
Every town has its quirks, and Minersville is no exception. The term "nosey neighbors" refers to those individuals who take a keen interest in the lives of those around them, walking the fine line between genuine concern and unbridled curiosity.
3. The Grapevine Effect (H2)
In Minersville, information travels at the speed of light, thanks to the grapevine effect. Gossip and tidbits of personal news swiftly make their way from one neighbor to another, creating a unique ecosystem where everyone is in the loop.
4. Small Town, Big Stories (H2)
The close proximity of homes in Minersville fosters a sense of intimacy among residents. Everyday occurrences can quickly become the talk of the town, turning the mundane into the extraordinary in the eyes of the ever-watchful neighbors.
5. Balancing Act: Community and Privacy (H2)
Living in Minersville means navigating the delicate balance between enjoying the warmth of a close-knit community and safeguarding your privacy. Residents often find themselves sharing their joys and challenges with neighbors, blurring the lines between public and private life.
6. Neighborhood Watch: A Minersville Tradition (H2)
In Minersville, the term "neighborhood watch" takes on a whole new meaning. While it may not involve patrolling the streets in the dead of night, the residents of Minersville keep a watchful eye on the happenings in their community, fostering a sense of security and unity.
7. The Quirks That Bind Us (H3)
It's not all about prying eyes and whispered conversations. The quirks of Minersville's nosy neighbors contribute to the town's unique identity. From impromptu street parties to collective efforts in times of need, the community spirit remains strong.
8. Curiosity or Concern? (H3)
One may wonder – are nosy neighbors driven by genuine concern or an insatiable curiosity? The thin line between these motivations adds an intriguing layer to the social dynamics of Minersville, creating a community where everyone knows everyone else's business.
9. The Perplexity of Gossip (H3)
Perplexity reigns supreme when it comes to the intricate web of gossip in Minersville. The town's grapevine often transforms simple stories into elaborate narratives, highlighting the human tendency to add twists and turns to keep things interesting.
10. Burstiness in Minersville Conversations (H3)
Conversations in Minersville are marked by bursts of activity, much like the sporadic bursts of laughter during a lively gathering. This burstiness contributes to the vibrant social fabric of the town, where engagements range from brief exchanges to lengthy heart-to-hearts.
11. Striking a Balance: Burstiness vs. Perplexity (H4)
While the burstiness of Minersville's conversations adds energy to the community, finding a balance with perplexity is crucial. Too much burstiness without context can lead to misunderstandings, making it essential for residents to navigate the delicate dance of social interactions.
12. The Minersville Paradox: Individuality in a Close-Knit Community (H4)
Despite the close-knit nature of Minersville, residents take pride in their individuality. The paradox of being both a unique individual and an integral part of a tight community contributes to the town's rich tapestry of stories and experiences.
13. Embracing the Nosey Neighbors (H4)
Rather than shying away from the watchful eyes of nosy neighbors, many in Minersville choose to embrace the phenomenon. The shared experiences and collective memories formed through these interactions add depth to the town's sense of belonging.
14. Privacy Etiquette: Unwritten Rules of Minersville (H4)
In the intricate dance of nosy neighbors, certain unwritten rules govern the respect for privacy. Residents learn to navigate the fine line between being involved in each other's lives and respecting personal boundaries, ensuring a harmonious coexistence.
15. Conclusion: Weaving the Fabric of Minersville (H2)
In the end, the nosy neighbors of Minersville play a vital role in weaving the intricate fabric of the town. Their watchful eyes, curious hearts, and occasional bursts of gossip create a dynamic community where every resident is an integral thread in the tapestry of Minersville life.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):
1. Are nosy neighbors unique to Minersville?
- No, nosy neighbors are a phenomenon found in many communities. However, the dynamics and culture of nosiness may vary from one town to another.
2. How do Minersville residents maintain privacy with such nosy neighbors?
- Residents in Minersville navigate privacy by establishing unspoken rules and respecting each other's boundaries. Open communication and a sense of community help strike a balance.
3. What are some positive aspects of having nosy neighbors in Minersville?
- Nosy neighbors in Minersville contribute to a strong sense of community, fostering support, camaraderie, and a shared history among residents.
4. Can burstiness in conversations lead to misunderstandings in Minersville?
- While burstiness adds vibrancy to conversations, it's essential for residents to be mindful of providing context to avoid misunderstandings.
5. How do nosy neighbors handle sensitive information in Minersville?
- Residents are expected to exercise discretion and handle sensitive information with care, reinforcing the importance of trust within the community.
In the heart of Minersville, nosy neighbors aren't just a quirk – they're an integral part of a town where curiosity, burstiness, and a sense of community create a living, breathing story that continues to unfold with each passing day.
1. The New Nosey Asses of the Minersville Area - Facebook
A group to piss and moan about anything. Find information about your neighbors or neighborhood.
See posts, photos and more on Facebook.
2. The New Nosey Asses of the Minersville Area Public Group
A group to piss and moan about anything. Find information about your neighbors or neighborhood.
See posts, photos and more on Facebook.
3. [PDF] miners's' journal journal - Minersville Borough
4 mei 2011 · problem is resolved when the noisy neighbors know you are going to call the police. Do be aware that you cannot always request noisy.
4. Jan31 by Republican Herald - Issuu
31 jan 2023 · Skip past the eye-rolling unlikeliness of this scenario — the fact that nosey, personal-space violating neighbors never notice that the guy ...
Blog
5. Schuylkill County - Pottsville Digital Marketing
... Minersville, and Saint Clair. ... However, social media is much more than posting a local business deal on the Nosey Neighbors of Schuylkill County page.
Wes Web serves Pottsville PA with internet marketing and digital marketing services. Contact us to start your Pottsville marketing project.
6. [PDF] Schuylkill County Comprehensive Plan - Appalachian Trail Conservancy
Frackville, Minersville, Port Carbon, Schuylkill Haven, St. Clair ... neighbors is to discourage people from moving into the area who are likely to find ...
7. Making an Offer | Buying a Home in Cedar City, UT
Use this answer to find out about any noisy neighbors, barking dogs, heavy ... Minersville · Modena · New Harmony · Newcastle · Paragonah · Parowan · Summit.
Tips on making an offer when buying a home in Cedar City, UT
8. [PDF] The Molly Maguires - Law Library
... neighbors, their sentimentality, their romance, their brilliant but erratic ... Minersville, St. Clair, Hazleton, Pittston,. Plymouth, and many others of ...
9. [PDF] AN INTERVEIW WITH EMMA RICHARD FORMASTER
24 jul 2018 · EF: He was born in Minersville, Utah, on November 5, and I think it ... yours or your neighbors'. So we ate everything that was there that ...
10. [PDF] Hurricane City Council Meeting - Utah.gov
4 aug 2022 · a wonderful neighbor. They have negotiated with Washington County ... Restructure and rebuild the drainage from the Minersville lake. H. 5 ...
11. McGowan v. Maryland (1961) - Jack Miller Center
Griffin, 303 U. S. 444, 303 U. S. 450; Minersville District v. Gobitis, 310 ... neighbors. The institutions of our society are founded on the belief that ...
MR. CHIEF JUSTICE WARREN delivered the opinion of the Court.
12. Republican and Herald from Pottsville, Pennsylvania • 28
25 aug 1995 · Jazz singer shoots at noisy neighbors AIX-EN-PROVENCE, France (AP) ... D's Interiors Rl 209 Pottsville-Mincrsville Highway, Minersville additional ...
Get this Republican and Herald page for free from Friday, August 25, 1995 -I S.A 88 POTTSVILLE (PA.) REPUBLICAN EVENING HERALD FRIDAY, AUGUST 25, 1905 IIP J' i. -r. i.. Edition of Republican and Herald
13. pictorialsketchb01bowe_djvu.txt - Loc
... Minersville, Tremont, &c. At Mount Carbon, to Tuscarora, Middleport, *c ... neighbors, always the first in the market with their "notions," have now a ...
Glass Book COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT PASSENGER TRAIN TIME TABLE. Leave Philadelphia from the Depot, Broad and Callowhill Street, at 7} A. M., and 3 J P. M. Daily Except Sundays, when an Excursion Train leaves at 7J A. M. Returning leaves Pottsville at 4 P. M. UP TRAINS, | DOWNTR/UNS. STATIONS. |jg£ Way Aft'n. STATIONS. Wag Morn. Exp's Aft'n. Leaves Philadelphia, Passes Schl. Viaduct, " Manayunk, " Conshohocken, " Norristown, " Port Kennedy, " Valley Forge, i! Phcenixville, " Boyer's Ford, " Limerick, " Pottstown, " Douglassville, " Birdsboro, " Beading, " Althouse's, " Mohrsville, ' ' Hamburg, " Port Clinton, " Auburn, " Orwigsburg, " Schl. Haven, " Mount Cabbon, Arrives at Pottsville, 7.30 3.30) — 3.41 3.50 4.05 4.12 4.21) — 4.26 8.31 4.41 — 4.51 — 4.56 8.58 5.13 — 5.22 — 5.33 9.34 6.00 — 6.25 — 6.30 — 6.48 10.17 6.58 — 7.11 — 7.19 10.43 7.27 10.52 736 1 11.00 7.45 1 Leaves Pottsville, Passes Mt. Cakbon, " Schl. Haven, " Orwigsburg, " Auburn, " Poet Clinton, " Hamburg, " Mohrsville, " Althouse's, " Beading, " Birdsboro, " Douglassville, " Pottstown, " Limerick, " Boyer's Ford, " Phcenixville, ' ' Valley Forge, " Port Kennedy, " Norristown, " Conshohocken, ' ' Manayunk, " Schl. Viaduct. Arrives at Philad'a. 7.30 7.37 7.46 7.57 8.05 8.20 8.30 8.48 8.53 9.10 9.32 9.41 9.51 10.04 10.08 10.18 10.29 10.34 10.44 10.51 11.06 11.18 11.30 3.30 3.37 3.45 4.10 4.51 5.30 5.56 7.00 STAGE CONNEXIONS. At Ph(enkville, -with Express and Way Trains, for Yellow Springs, &c. At Pottstown, with Express Trains, for Boyerstown, Allentown, &c. At Reading, with Express Trains, for Lebanon, Harrisburg, Bernville, Jonestown, &c At Pottsville, with Express Trains, for Northumberland, Sunbury, Danville, Cata- wissa, &c. RAILROAD CONNEXIONS. At Port Clinton, to Tamaqua, thence by Stage to Mauch Chunk, Wilkesbarre, Lacka- wanna, Hazelton, &c. At Schuylkill Haven, to Minersville, Tremont, &c. At Mount Carbon, to Tuscarora, Middleport, *c. ^Ijilaurlpljiii imi) JlmMng Hailroa^ PASSENGER FARES AND DISTANCES. UP TRAINS 1 DOWN TRAINS. DUt. From PhilaoVa to FARES. No.l\No.2 Dist. From Pottsville to fares. No.l\No,2 3 1 Schl. Viaduct, .15 .10 1 Mount Carbon, .05 .05 7 Manayunk, .20 .15 4 Schl. Haven, .15 .10 13* Conshohocken, .30 .25 7 Orwigsburg, .20 .15 17 Norristown, .40 .30 1 10 Auburn, .30 .25 21* Port Kennedy, .65 .50 1 15 Port Clinton, .45 .35 23* Valley Forge, .70 .60 18 Hamburg, .55 .45 27* PlICENIXVILLE, .80 .65 25 Mohrsville, .75 .60 32 Royer's Ford, .95 .80 1 27 Althouse's, .80 .65 34 Limerick, 1.05 .85 1 35 Reading, 1.05 .85 40 Pottstown, 1.20 1.00 l 44 Birdsboro, 1.30 1.10 44* Douglassville, 1.35 1.10 48? y Douglassville, 1.45 1.20 49 Birdsboro, 1.50 1.25 53 Pottstown, 1.60 1.30 58 Reading, 1.75 1.45 59 Limerick, 1.75 1.45 66 Althouse's, 2.00 1.65 61 Royer's Ford, 1.80 1.50 68 Mohrsville, 2.05 1.70 65* Phcenixville, 1.95 1.65 75 Hamburg, 2.25 1.90 69* Valley Forge, 2.05 1.70 78 Port Clinton, 2.35 1.95 7l| Port Kennedy, 2.10 1.75 83 Auburn, 2.50 2.10 76 Norristown, 2.35 1.95 86 Orwigsburg, 2.60 2.15 M Conshohocken, 2.45 2.00 89 Schl. Haven, 2.70 2.20 86 Manayunk, 2.55 2.15 92 Mount Carbon, 2.75 2.25 m Schl. Viaduct. 2.65 2.20 93 POTTSVILLE, 2.75 2.25 93 Philadelphia. 2.75 2.25 Way Trains stop at all the points stated : Express Trains only at those Stations in Sjiall Capitals, and positively at no others. All Passengers will purchase their tickets before entering the cars. Fifty pounds of Baggage are allowed each Passenger. Passengers are strictly forbidden to stand outside, on the Platforms, while the cars are in motion. Passengers waiting for Way Trains, at Way Points where there is no Railroad Agent, will signal the approaching Trains, otherwise they will not stop. 0?YR*C* THE PICTORIAL SKETCH-BOOK PENNSYLVANIA. OR ITS SCENERY, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, RESOURCES, AND AGRICULTURE, POPULARLY DESCRIBED, BY ELI BOWEN. AUTHOR OF IHE "U. S. POST-OFFICE GUIDE," AND LATE OF THE GENERAL POST-OFFICE. illustrate foitij obn ®foo ?^unlJn& HSnijraiinijs, AND A COLORED MAP. PHILADELPHIA: WILLIAM B ROM WELL, 19 5 CHESTNUT STREET. 185 3. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by WILLIAM BROMWELL, in the Clerk's office of the District Court of the United States, for the Eastern Districi of Pennsylvania. Stereotyped by Slote & Moonbt, Philadelphia. C. Sherman, Printer. TO JOHN TUCKER, Esq., PRESIDENT OF THE READING RAILROAD, THE SCHUYLKILL VALLEY RAILROAD, ETC. ETC., THESE SKETCHES OF THE ANTHRACITE COAL REGIONS, AND THEIR PRINCIPAL OUTLET, ARE INSCRIBED AS A SLIGHT INTIMATION OF THE RESPECT WHICH IS ENTERTAINED FOR HM BY THE THOUSANDS DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY CONNECTED WITH THE COAL TRADE. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present edition of the " Pictorial Sketch Book/' it will be seen, contains the beautiful and celebrated poem of Campbell's "Gertrude of Wyoming" — as originally promised. I cannot but regret, however, that owing to circ*mstances which need not be mentioned here, the engravings prepared at my expense to illus- trate it are necessarily omitted. To make amends for this, several additional engravings have been introduced, together with upwards of eighty pages of new matter, which, it is hoped, will somewhat strengthen the gigantic title of the work, (bestowed by the former publisher,) as a " Sketch-Book of Pennsylvania." It is probably due to me to say, that two or three paragraphs were introduced into the first edition, without my knowledge or consent. One of these paragraphs will be found on page 171 of " Off-Hand Sketches," and refers to the Black Creek coal estate in Luzerne county. The insertion of this particular paragraph was, in my opinion, entirely out of place; and I therefore protested against it, the moment it was discovered. It was owing to this m 8 TREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. circ*mstance, that the proof-sheets were subsequently withheld from me, thereby admitting a series of errors, typographical and other- wise, to go forth uncorrected in the first edition. The publication of the book having subsequently been trans- ferred to Mr. Bromwell, — the present liberal-minded, gentlemanly, and meritorious publisher, — he requested me to make the alterations and improvements previously referred to. Although probably not free of errors, we cannot but commend the work, under the auspices of Mr. Bromwell, to the notice of our friends. BOWEN. A WORD BEFORE WE GO. In all parts of Europe the traveller is supplied ■with Guide-books, de- tailing, for his special information and satisfaction, the leading features of all objects of interest on his route. There is not an antiquated castle, a battle-field, a mountain, or a river, but has its peculiar points revealed for the entertainment of the stranger, as he rambles along from place to place. No doubt this materially adds to the interest and subsequent value of travel ; and probably constitutes one of the paramount attractions of a tour in Europe, since all its incidents are thus permanently impressed on the mind. In the United States no such conveniences exist ; and this is probably one reason ■why foreigners generally misunderstand and misrepresent us — they are not sufficiently informed to give a correct estimate of our re- sources, peculiarities, and institutions. They hastily pass over our rail- ways and rivers, and, for the want of suitable printed-guides, return as profoundly ignorant of the routes traversed as they were at the starting- point — for seeing is not understanding. In her physical aspect and resources, Pennsylvania is pre-eminently the most interesting State in the Union — yet, for the want of popular descrip- tions and references, her real character is comparatively obscured from the public view. The most intelligent individual may make the tour from the Delaware to the Ohio by railroad, and yet be unable to identify one-half the towns, or mountains, or streams, or otherwise explain correctly the prominent local characteristics of the route traversed. Thousands of persons, of fortune and leisure, owing to this evil, are intimidated from travelling ; while many proceed direct to Europe, before visiting the objects of interest in their own immediate land. It was as much with the hope of converting our time to a useful pur- (9) 10 PRE FACE. pose, as receiving a reasonable compensation for it, that we undertook to sketch, in a sprightly and popular way, some of the prominent features of our time-honoured Commonwealth. If we have collected together, in tolerable order, a mass of matter that will relieve, to some extent, the fatigue and monotony of travel, our main object has been attained. We may add, that over seventeen hundred dollars have been expended for pictorial illustrations, some of which we can point to as fair specimens of the art. During the particular time we were engaged in the preparation of these pages, however, an unusual activity prevailed among our best wood engravers, in consequence of large orders from the Government. We were, therefore, in several instances, forced to employ artists of ordinary talent — though, upon the whole, we think the reader will find little to complain of under this head. The matter is, what it purports to be, off-hand, and no particular cre- dit is claimed or expected for it. We have profited from the works of others to a greater extent than we should, had our time been less limited. Our acknowledgments are due to the works of the late Prof. Richardson, and to those of Mr. Day, Mr. Trego, and others, from which the matter not strictly original has been mainly extracted. With these explanations our work is done. E. B. N. B. — It is proper to add, that not having corrected the latter portion of this work as it was passing through the press, some errors appear which would not otherwise have occurred. CONTENTS. OFF-HAND SKETCHES. Anthracite Anthracite of, Anthracite ture of, Anthracite, Anthracite, Anthracite, Anthracite, Anthracite, Anthracite, Anthracite, Coal, discovery of, . . Coal Regions, position Coal Regions, struc- for smelting iron, . analysis of, weight of, general features of, . comparative value of, experiments with, annual production of, PAGE 156 161 163 179 217 217 218 221 221 226 Bethlehem, sketch of, . . . 304 Berks County, remarks on, . 70 — 91 Copper, mines of, . 'Conshehocken, village of, Coal, statistics of, . ».- . Coal region, remarks upon, Coal, origin of, . Coal, vegetation of the, . Coal Lands, speculations in, Coal Trade, railway and canal sys- tem of, .... Crane's patent for smelting iron, 49 54 215 107 120 123 176 179 Delaware Water-Gap, description of, 276 Drift, theory of, . . . .132 Earth, origin and antiquity of, . 120 Earth, stratification of the crust of, 138 Easton, routes to, etc., . . 296 Easton, description of, . . .301 Factory system, remarks on the, 43 Falls of the Schuylkill, . . 38 Faults in the coal veins, nature of 155 Fossil impressions in the coal, . 124 First experiments in smelting iron with Anthracite — celebration of the same, etc., . . . 180 Fire-Damp, means to check, . . 206 Gaseous explosions in mines, . 204 Gertrude of Wyoming, the poem of, 269 Hamburg, borough of, . . . 94 Ice-cutting on the Schuylkill, . 20 Inclined-planes at Mauch Chunk, 115 Iron ore of the coal regions, . 182 Lager Beer vaults, . . .20 Laurel Hill Cemetery, . . 31 Lead, mines of, . . . .51 Litiz, sketch of the schools of, . 303 Lime-stone and Lime-kilns, . id Lyell, Sir Charles, geological opi- nions of, 133 Luzerne, county of, . . . 237 Mansion House, near Pottsville, . 101 Manayunk, sketch of, . . 42 Marble, quarries of, . . 4S Mauch Chunk, sketch of, . . 115 Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven railroad, . . . .100 Montgomery, county of, . . 56 Moore Tom, the Irish poet, . . 24 Mountain region, remarks on the, 95 Moravians, or United Brethren, sketch of the, . . . 304 Mining Operations, history and description of, 172 Mines, ventillation of, . . 195 Mines, gaseous explosions in, . 198 Miner's Doom, the — a poem, . 204 Miners, moral condition of, . .210 Miners, moral condition in Europe, 213 Norristown, borough of, Norristown railroad, trade of the, Pennsylvania — a poem, Pottstown, remarks on, 54 15 70 (11) 12 CONTENTS PAGE Pottsviile, sketch of, . . . 102 Port Clinton and Tamaqua rail- road, 99 Port Richmond, the coal depot, 37 PhoenLwillc, iron manufactures of, 65 Quakers, the, 07 81 Reading Railroad, sketch of, Reading Railroad, future prospects of, 227 Reading, city of . . 75—90 Railroad and Canal system, pros- pects of, .... 227 Safety-Lamps, Sir II. Davy, . 199 Scenery of the Schivylkill, . 53 Schuylkill Haven, ... 99 Schuylkill Navigation, sketch of the, . . . . . .79 Sloeum, Miss, capture of, . . 260 Stratification, the order of, . . 142 Strike and Dip, explanation of, 148 Steuben, Bacon, sketch of, . . 62 Summit Hill 112 Swatara Falls 108 PAGE Susquehanna, floods in, . . 264 Surveys of Indian purchases, . 299 Taylor, Bayard, an allusion to, . 68 Tamaqua, sketch of, . . Ill Tamaqua, railroad system of, . Ill Tunnel at Phoenixville, . . 69 Trout-fishing in Wyoming, . . 238 Union Canal, history of, . . 76 Vegetable mineralization, process of, 133 Valley Forge, historical sketch of, 58 Washington at Valley Forge, Wissahickon, the, Water-works at Fairmount, Weiser, Conrad, sketch of, . Wilkesbarre, route to, etc., Wyoming, the valley of, 61- -93 41 13 94 236 241 Wyoming Valley, Indians of, etc., 245 Wyoming, settlement of, . . 251 Wyoming, battles of, . . 252 Wyoming, the monument, . . 267 Zinzendorf, Count, sketch of, 246 LOCOMOTIVE SKETCHES. Agriculture, sketch of the Penn- sylvania system, ... 30 Agriculture, statistics of produc- tion, 42 Agricultural population, general features of, . . . . 43 Alleghany Mountain range, origin and structure of the, . . 149 Alleghany bituminous coal trade, etc., 148 Alleghany Mountains, scenery of, the, . . . 142, 145, 159 Altoona, village of, . . 132—140 Blockley Almshouse, statistics of, 16 Bigler, His Excellency, Governor, etc., 74 Bituminous coal fields, area of . 148 Braddock's field, battle of, . 170 Bright Alfarata of the Blue Ju- niata — a song, . . . 9S Broad Top coal district, . .101 Buchanan, Hon. James, and others, 60 Chester County, resources of, Chester County, historical dents, Coatesville, village of, Charring Wood, process of, Conemaugh, scenery of the, 145- Conemaugh Station, Columbia, borough of Cooking Fuel, process of, Conestoga, trade of the, etc., Conewago Hills, geological fea- tures of, . . . . Conewago Falls, descent through the, Common School Law, general fea- tures of, .... Cornwall Iron Ore District, . Dauphin Coal District, Downingtown, village of, Duncannon, village of, Eagle Hotel, .... Ephrata, historical sketch ot, . 29 26 25 106 159 155 61 115 51 64 76 107 78 24 83 18 44 CONTENTS 13 PAGE Forging Iron, processes of, . . 123 Fox-chasing, .... 39 Fulton, Robert, sketch of, . . 57 Furnaces, construction of, . 112 Furnaces, theory of the blast, . 120 Furnaces, charge measure of, . 120 Furnaces, running the metal, . 121 Furnaces, puddling, process of, 124 Gas Works, notice of, . . . 14 Gallatzin, Rev. D. A., sketch of, 157 Greensburg, borough of, . .169 Hanco*ck's Chair, ... 73 Harrisburg, sketch of, . . . 66 Horse-racing, .... 38 Huntingdon, borough of, . .101 Inclined Planes, . . .142 Indiantown, . . . .52 Iron Manufactures, processes of, 10S Johnstown, borough of, . .156 Juniata, scenery of the, . 36 — 90 Lancaster City, sketch of, . . 48 Latrobe, village of, . . .160 Legislature, material of the, . 69 Lewis, Hon. Ellis, and others, . 60 Lewistown, borough of, . . 92 Logan, the Indian Chief, sketch of, 94 Lumber Region, sketch of the, . 162 Lumber Trade, statistics of, . 167 Maple Sugar, making, . . . 142 Market Street Bridge, . . 15 Mine Ridge, copper and chrome of, 29 Middletown, borough of, . . 64 ' Millerstown, borough of, . . S5 Mifflintown, borough of, . . 87 Mountain House, .... 141 Mount Joy, .... 62 Mountain Scenes, 65, 78, 84, 100, 142, 145. Newport, village of, PAGE 85 21 Paoli, sketch of, Patterson House, notice of, . . 88 Pennsylvania Railroad, sketch of, 134 Pittsburg, sketch of, . . .175 Pulpit Rocks, description of, . 102 Quakers, religious faith of the, . 3.0 Roasting Iron Ore, . . .118 Rolling Sheet and Bar Iron, . 127 Rolling Railroad Iron, • . . 129 Salt Springs, . . . .168 St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, . . 170 Safe Harbor Iron Works, . . 51 Shad-fishing in Susquehanna, . 55 Sinking Springs, Blair county, . 132 State Improvement System, sketch of, 69 State Lunatic Hospital, . . 77 Statistics of Iron Manufactures, . 130 Steam Navigation, experiments in, 56 Stevens, Hon. Thaddeus, and oth- ers, 59 Steam King, song of the, . . 20' Squeezer, for blooms, . . 125 Susquehanna, scenery of, 65, 78, 84 Susquehanna, ice freshets in the, 81 Susquehanna, fish-baskets in the, 82 Turnpike versus Railroad, . 19 ' Tyrone, iron works of, . . 106 Union Furnace, . . .104 Washington Crossing the Alle- ghany, 171 Wayne, Gen. Anthony, sketch of, 21 West Philadelphia, ... 16 White Hall, 17 PEDESTRIAN SKETCHES. PAGE Alleghany Valley Railroad, . 200 Boom, the, in West Branch, . . 197 Blossburg and Corning Railroad. 198 Erie, city of, .... 204 Montour's Ridge, iron of, . 194 Northumberland, borough of, . 195 Lewisburg, village of, . . 195 Lumber Trade of West Branch, Ole Bull's Settlement, Sinnemahoning, . Sunbury, borough of, Sunbury and Erie Railroad, Warren, borough of, Williamsport, borough of, Wilderness, the — where is it ? PAGE , 196 199 202 194 204 201 195 193 PENNSYLVANIA BY PHILIP FRENEAU. Spread with stupendous hills, far from the main, Fair Pennsylvania holds her golden reign ; In fertile fields her wheaten harvest grows, Charged with its freights her favorite Delaware flows ; From Erie's lake her soil with plenty teems To where the Schuylkill rolls his limpid streams — Sweet stream ! what pencil can thy beauties tell — Where, wandering downward through the woody vale, Thy varying scenes to rural bliss invite, To health and pleasure add a new delight. Here Juniata, too, allures the swain, And gay Cadorus roves along the plain ; Swatara, tumbling from the distant hill, Steals through the waste, to turn the industrious mill — "Where'er those floods through groves or mountain stray, That God of nature still directs the way ; With fondest care has traced each river's bed, And mighty streams thro' mighty forests led ; Bade agriculture thus export her freight, The strength and glory of this favored State. She, famed for science, arts, and polished men, Admires her Franklin, but adores her Penn, (15) 16 PENNSYLVANIA. Who wandering here, made barren forests bloom, And the new soil a happier robe assume : He planned no schemes that virtue disapproves, He robbed no Indian of his native groves, But, just to all, beheld his tribes increase, Did what he could to bind the world in peace, And, far retreating from a selfish band, Bade Freedom flourish in this foreign land. Gay towns unnumbered shine through all her plains, Here every art its happiest height attains : The graceful ship, on nice proportions planned, Here finds perfection from the builder's hand, To distant worlds commercial visits pays, Or war's bold thunder o'er the deep conveys. OFF-HAND SKETCHES PART I kind in 2 tfju % alhtj nf tip #rjjtn{lltilL Let us, since life can little else supply, Than just to look around us, and to die, Expatiate free o'er all this scene of man — A mighty maze, but not without a plan; A wild, where weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot, Or garden, tempting with forbidden fruit. Together let us roam this ample field — Try what the open, what the covert yield; Eye Nature's walks — shoot folly as it flies, And catch the manners, living, as they rise ; Laugh where we must — be candid where we can, But always vindicate the ways of God to man ! ROM Philadelphia to Potts- ville, Tamaqua and Mauch Chunk, thence to Wilkes- barre, in Wyoming ; — this is the journey before us. Hav- ing seated ourselves in the comfortable cars of the Read- ing Railroad Company, the first object which arrests our attention, after leaving the depot at Broad near Callow- hill street, is the Preston Retreat, a fine marble build- ing on our right ; we then catch glimpses of the Eastern Penitentiary, which served as a model for European Institutions of a like char- acter, and of Girard College, the finest building of the the United States, and one of the finest in the world. * C (17) IK OFF-HAND SKETCHES GIRARD COLLEGE. Shortly after which we see, on our left, the Fairmount Water-works, and although a notice of it is not strictly within the range of this work, it may nevertheless pi'ove interesting to many to learn some- thing of its leading features, especially as it was the first establish- ment of the kind ever erected in the United States ; and, in point of boldness of conception and romantic profile, probably inferior to none in any quarter of the globe. The first water-works were commenced in 1799. A steam-engine was placed in Chestnut street, near the Schuylkill, by means of which the water was elevated to a basin in Penn square, and from thence distributed to the city in wooden pipes. The quantity of water thus obtained was soon found to be entirely too small to supply the increasing demand, and the works were abandoned in 1815, after nearly $700,000 had been spent upon them. In 1816 the works at Fairmount were commenced, the water being again raised by steam to an elevated reservoir. Steam was found too expensive, and arrangements were adopted in 1818, by which the water-power of the river was applied. A dam was erected in a diagonal course across the river, securing a head of water nearly thirty feet in depth, and conducted to the mill-houses, on the eastern side of the stream, as represented in the engraving on the opposite page. Here the water FAIR MOUNT WATER-WORKS. 19 FAIRMOUNT WATER-WORKS. is forced up to the reservoir, elevated about one hundred feet above the level of the river, and fifty feet above the highest ground in the city. The reservoir, when full, contains twelve feet of water, and is capable of holding over twenty-two millions of gallons. There are eighty-three miles of water-pipe laid down in the city, exclu- sive of the works of Spring Garden and the Northern Liberties, which probably have an equal extent in the adjoining districts of the city proper. The daily average consumption of water, from these works, is nearly five million gallons. Their total cost was $1,615,169, and they were designed and executed by the late Frederick Graff, to whose memory a handsome monument is erected in the grounds fronting on the Schuylkill, from a design by his son. The comparison between the present works and the old steam- works, is greatly to the advantage of the former. It was not pos- sible, with the steam-engines, to raise one million two hundred and fifty thousand gallons per day — whereas, the present works, with only three wheels, can readily raise three times this amount, without any increase of expense. But if the same quantity were required to be raised by additional steam-engines, the annual expense would probably be at least $75,000. In other words, the expense of raising three hundred and seventy-five thousand gallons per day, by steam, would be $206 — by water, it is only $4. In this estimate, the first cost of the steam-engines or of the water-power is not considered. These works are eminently worth a visit from the stranger. They are delightfully situated, and present a view, in connection with sur- rounding objects, of rare beauty and spirit. The wire-bridge, stretch- 20 OFP-HANDSKETCHES. ing across the Schuylkill, is also an interesting object, and is prob- ably one of the most complete structures of the kind, as we believe it was one of the first, ever erected in the United States. The ac- companying sketch exhibits a faithful view of the Water-works and Wire-bridge, as seen from the opposite side of the river. Within the suburbs of the city, scattered along the rail-road, several " lager beer" establishments will be noticed. These breweries are all of very recent origin, and lager beer is, to many, an unknown beverage. It is a German drink, of which they are very fond, and is similar in taste and appearance to porter, but is said to have none of its deleterious qualities. It is a weak, bitter, but not unpleasant beer, containing an abundance of hops. It derives its peculiar value and flavor from storage in vaults, as the word "lager" sufficiently implies. The longer it is stored, the finer becomes its quality. The vicinity of Fairmount has lately become the fountain-head ' of this description of manufacture, and it is consequently a favorite resort for Germans, who, ranged around their little square tables, with cigars, pipes, newspapers and glass-mugs of lager, Mingle o'er their friendly bowl, The feast of reason and the flow of soul. As we pass Fairmount, the river Schuylkill, with its green banks, soft verdure, and rich foliage, is brought into view — the rail-road, until it crosses the bridge, diverging along its eastern bank. Here a number of spacious warehouses will be noticed, built directly along the water's edge, and affording access for carts by means of scaffold- ing erected to their upper stories. These are ice-houses. They are built with much care, the walls filled in with tan-bark to exclude the air, and capable of storing an immense quantity of ice. The manner of collecting and storing the ice is very simple, and is fully illus- trated in the accompanying engraving. Of late years, the storage and shipment of ice has become a very considerable item of trade. A large quantity is required for the consumption of the city, but in addition to this, no inconsiderable amount is shipped to the South, as well as to foreign countries where the climate forbids its production. Vessels freighted with ice always obtain a return load, and thereby a judicious exchange of local com- modities is effected with points where, under other circ*mstances, our trade would probably be less extensive, and our communication CROSSING THE SCHUYLKILL. 23 CUTTING ICE ON THE SCHUYLKILL. less frequent. Our eastern neighbors, always the first in the market with their "notions," have now a serious competitor in Philadelphia in this branch of commerce. In seasons of scarcity, ice is brought down the Schuylkill, in the spring, from the mountain regions of Schuylkill county, where, the climate being somewhat colder, and the streams less impregnated with sediment, it attains a good thickness, as well as a pure and transparent quality. On the Schuylkill, it usually attains a thick- ness of from four to twelve or more inches, and is probably unrivalled for the purity of its mineral composition, and freedom from foreign and deleterious substances. Its color varies from snowy opaqueness to translucency, and sometimes to the most beautiful watery trans- parency. As we pass over the splendid rail-road bridge, a very interesting object presents itself. A beautiful little island, overgrown with tall and slender trees, nestles in the midst of the river, and immediately in front of it, on the western shore, is situated an unique cottage, built of stone, and apparently of some antiquity. In front of the cottage are two old trees, wrinkled and gnarled, like the furrows in an old man's face. This cottage is now a rough and dilapidated affair, but it was once the temporary residence of the late Thomas Moore, the celebrated Irish poet. It bears the rather unpoetic name of " Pig's Eye," but to many is known as Tom Moore's cottage. We entered the house while our friend Brightly was sketching it, 24 OFF -HANDS KETCHES. and found it indeed a relic of the past. The ceilings, which have never been plastered, reveal the rough joists, now blackened with smoke and greasy rust, while the occupants complained of the con- dition of the roof, which leaks badly. The cottage appeared other- wise warm and comfortable, as answering the humble pretensions of the lessee. But we thought there was some reason for his com- plaint against the landlord, who failed to put it in tenantable order, after receiving two months' rent in advance. If properly fitted up, it might still serve as the abode of the muse, — but, alas ! it can never again return to the scenes of its former glory. It is about forty-five years since Mr. Moore visited this country ; and the changes which have been made during this time, are probably no less striking elsewhere than on this spot. At that time, this little cot was sur- rounded with a comparative wilderness, the abode of merry warblers and of wild-flowers ; — the Schuylkill yet flowed in undisturbed tran- quillity, and its peaceful shores were fragrant with the rich profusion of its foliage. It was a spot well calculated to tempt the poet from the noisy scenes of the town, and no less calculated to lend inspiration to the harp which has given such celebrity to his melodies. "I went to America," (says the poet, after his return to Europe,) "with pre- possessions by no means unfavorable, and indeed rather indulged in many of those illusive ideas with respect to the purity of the government and the primi- tive happiness of the people, which I had early imbibed in my native country, where, unfortunately, discontent at home enhances every distant temptation, and the western world has long been looked to as a retreat for real or imaginary op- pression ; as, in short, the Elysian Atlantis, where persecuted patriots might find their visions realized, and be welcomed by kindred spirits to liberty and repose. In all these flattering expectations I found myself completely disappointed, and felt inclined to say to America, as Horace says to his mistress, " intentata nites." Brissot, in the preface to his travels, observes that 'freedom in that country is carried to so high a degree as to border upon a state of nature;' and there cer- tainly is a close approximation to savage life, not only in the liberty which they enjoy, but in the violence of party spirit, and of private animosity which results from it The rude familiarity of the lower orders, and indeed the unpol- ished state of society in general, would neither surprise nor disgust if they seemed to flow from that simplicity of character, that honest ignorance of the gloss of refinement, which may be looked for in a new and inexperienced people. But, when we find them arrived at maturity in most of the vices, and all the pride of civilization, while they are still so far removed from its higher and TOM moore's cottage. 27 better characteristics, it is impossible not to feel that this youthful decay, this crude anticipation of the natural period of corruption, must repress every san- guine hope of the future energy and greatness of America." During his brief sojourn on the green banks of the Schuylkill, the poet produced several choice effusions ; but it is to be regretted that these gems are associated with so much that, for his own high reputa- tion, had better been " left unsung." In his poem addressed to the Hon. W. R. Spencer, he speaks thus disparagingly of us : All that creation's varying mass assumes Of grand or lovely, here aspires and blooms; Bold rise the mountains, rich the gardens glow, Bright lakes expand, and conquering rivers flow ; But mind, immortal mind, without whose ray This world 's a wilderness and man hut clay ; Mind, mind alone in barren, still repose, Nor blooms, nor rises, nor expands, nor flows. Take Christians, Mohawks, Democrats, and all — Prom the rude wigwam to the Congress hall — From man the savage — whether slaved or free, — To man the civilized, less tame than he, — 'Tis one dull chaos, one unfertile strife Betwixt half-polished, and half-barbarous life ; Where every ill the ancient world could brew Is mixed with every grossness of the new, — Where all corrupts, though little can entice, And naught is known of luxury but its vice. In his sweeping denunciations of the American character, he spares only the " sacred few" whom he met in Philadelphia: Yet, yet forgive me, oh ye sacred few, Whom late by Delaware's green banks I knew; Whom, known and loved through many a social eve, 'Twas bliss to live with, and 'twas pain to leave. * * * * * * Believe me, Spencer, while I winged the hours Where Schuylkill winds his way through banks of flowers, Though few the days, the happy evenings few, So warm with heart, so rich with mind they flew, That my charmed soul forgot its wish to roam, And rested there, as in a dream of home. 28 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The following lines purport to have been written on leaving Philadelphia : Alone by the Schuylkill a wanderer roved, And bright were its flowery banks to his eye ; But far, yqtj far were the friends that he loved, And he gazed on its flowery banks with a sigh. Oh Nature, though blessed and bright are thy rays, 'er the brow of creation enchantingly thrown, Yet faint are they all to the lustre that plays In a smile from the heart that is fondly our own. Nor long did the soul of the stranger remain Unblessed by the smile he had languished to meet ; Though scarce did he hope it would soothe him again, Till the threshold of home had been pressed by his feet. But the lays of his boyhood had stolen to their ear, And they loved what they knew of so humble a name; And they told him, with flattery welcome and dear, That they found in his heart something better than fame. Nor did woman — oh woman ! whose form and whose soul Are the spell and the light of each path we pursue ; "Whether sunned in the tropics or chilled at the pole, If woman be there, there is happiness too ; — Nor did she her enamoring magic deny ; — That magic his heart had relinquished so long, — Like eyes he had loved was her eloquent eye, Like them did it soften and weep at his song. Oh, blessed be the tear, and in memory oft, May its sparkle be shed o 'er the wanderer's dream ; Thrice blessed be that eye, and may passion as soft, As free from a pang, ever mellow its beam ! The stranger is gone — but he will not forget, When at home he shall talk of the toils he has known, To tell, with a sigh, what endearments he met, As he strayed by the banks of the Schuylkill alone ! It was also during his lonely rambles on the banks of the Schuyl- kill that the following beautiful ballad stanzas were written — most probably while contemplating some neighboring cottage : I knew by the smoke, that so gracefully curled Above the green elms, that a cottage was near ; And I said, " If there 's peace to be found in the world, A heart that was humble might hope for it here !" LAUREL HILL CEMETERY. 31 It was noon, and on flowers that languished around In silence reposed the voluptuous bee ; Every leaf was at rest, and I heard not a sound But the woodpecker tapping the hollow beech-tree. And " Here, in this lone little wood," I exclaimed, " With a maid who was lovely to soul and to eye, Who would blush when I praised her, and weep if I blamed, How blest could I live, and how calm could I die !" By the shade of yon sumach, whose red berry dips In the gush of the fountain, how sweet to recline, And to know that I sighed upon innocent lips, Which had never been sighed on by any but mine ! Whatever may be thought of the justness of Mr. Moore's estimate of our country forty-five years ago, it hardly needs comment now. The poet, then young and inexperienced, lived long enough to form different and more correct opinions. It is but a few months since he died, after lingering, for a considerable time, in a melancholy and imbecile state of mind. Whatever his sentiments may have been, subsequently to his visit to this country, as to the state of American civilization, literature, and the arts, is now perfectly immaterial ; — for, as a nation and a people, we have lived long enough to learn a little, and have not been without opportunities of illustrating our progress. We have paid our respects to old England in various ways, and at sundry times ; — and there can be no doubt but that she knows us. Whatever our progress is, she finds it no child's play to keep up with us, whether on land or sea. As for poor Ireland — she, too, has heard from us, and whether we be " savages," " democrats," or " poets," she probably has a correct idea of the extent of our pro- ductive resources, if not of our benevolence. The spirit that can prompt generous feelings in one case, can supply it in all cases. No matter what the bard thought of us, we had a good opinion of him ; and the day will never dawn when American hearts will cease to beat to his happy strains. After leaving the cottage, we pass on to the Falls of Schuylkill, some six miles from the city. On our right, on the other or eastern side of the river, is Laurel Hill Cemetery, one of the most lovely and inviting spots of the kind in this country. So popular has this necropolis of the dead become, that the company has been obliged to increase its area, and several adjacent tracts of land have accord- 32 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. ingly been added to it. Many strangers own lots in this beautiful Cemetery, and some of its handsomest tombs and monuments have been erected over the remains of eminent men who served their country in important public capacities. We give an accurate view of a portion of the grounds from an original sketch just taken, as also a view of the grand entrance. ENTRANCE TO LAUREL HILL. The Falls of the Schuylkill were so called, because, in former times, before the erection of the Fairmount dam, they were quite percep- tible, but have since entirely disappeared. The Reading Railroad makes a fork at this point — one branch crossing the river by a splendid bridge, and extending to Port Rich- mond on the Delaware ; the other branch extending to the city, over which we have just passed. The road to Port Richmond is about five miles in length, and it is at this place that the great bulk of the coal brought down by the Reading Railroad is shipped. The facilities for this purpose are of the most extensive and admirable character. The wharves are extended a considerable distance into the river, over km -m PORT RICHMOND. 37 which the railroad is prolonged into numerous lateral branches, sup- ported on strong tressel-works. The loaded cars are hauled to the water's edge, where large apartments are erected for the storage of the coal. These apartments lie under the tressel-works, the bottoms of which descend, with a slight inclination, over the water's edge. The contents of the cars are discharged from the bottom, (being con- structed expressly for that purpose,) and the coal falls directly into the proper apartments below, assigned for the different sizes and qualities. A vessel, therefore, to be loaded, has merely to be drawn up to the wharf, under the projecting spout of the coal apartments, when a wicket is raised, and the coal issues out in one continuous stream. The operation of unloading the car, and of loading a vessel, is consequently very simple ; yet the contrivance, in its original con- ception, is one of great practical merit, saving annually, as it does, a large amount of money and time. The engraving illustrates the pro- cess just described, at the same time that it conveys an idea of the extent of the business of shipping the coal at Port Richmond. The Reading Railroad, after many years of hard struggling, has laid down a foundation for future success as broad, and practical, and compre- hensive, as it was possible for human industry and ingenuity to devise. The earnings of the company, amidst all its former embar- rassments, were, in a great measure, necessary to its complete equip- ment. To make it productive, accommodations corresponding with the stupendous trade of the road had to be provided ; and this, too, in the midst of its darkest and most trying history. But the improve- ments are now made and completed, and stand forth as shining monuments to the energy and well-directed management of the road. On our return to the Schuylkill, we shall diverge into the city, and " see what is to be seen" on the Philadelphia and Norristown Rail- road, which, on the opposite shore of the river, runs parallel with the Re ading Railroad from the Falls to Norristown, and embraces nearly evtry object of interest between those two places. The first object that strikes us, in connection with this road, is a new, elegant, and imposing one, viz. : the depot situated at the corner of Ninth and Green streets. This handsome edifice has just been completed, at a cost of some $10,000. It is, in many points of view, a model of archi- lectural skill — combining the practical with the ornamental, at the lowest possible cost. The business of this road, extending from 38 OFF-HAND SKETCHED PHILADELPHIA AND NORRISTOWN RAILROAD DEPOT. Philadelphia to Norristown, with a branch to Germantown, is rap- idly increasing, and has been the instrument of scattering along the route it traverses an active, intelligent, and enterprising population. The trade, of course, is mainly local, including the conveyance of passengers. Many of the business men of Philadelphia have summer residences in the vicinity of the road, while others permanently reside in the country. These, added to the ordinary movements of the dense population along the route, make the conveyance of pas- sengers an important item, which must annually increase with the progressive increase of business. The road, a short distance from the city, passes over the Port Kichmond branch of the Heading Railroad, and soon after appears at the point from which we diverged, viz : the Falls of Schuylkill, a view of which is annexed. The extensive buildings lying at the western end of the village, between the railroad and the river, comprise the chemical works of Powers, Weightman, Harrison & Co. The greater portion of the population is supported by these large and splendid works, the proprietors of which have an establishment, equally extensive, in the city. Phila- delphia is justly distinguished for its chemical productions, and the' firm above mentioned probably stands at the head of this description of manufacture — one of the most complicated and arduous, we may add, that human industry and capital could embark in. THE WISSAHICKON. 41 The vicinity of the Falls is much frequented, in the summer time, by the citizens of the town. They ride out here to obtain an airing. The romantic and picturesque Wissahickon empties into the Schuyl- kill a short distance above the village, and this is the principal source of attraction. Its banks are bold and rocky, overgrown with stately trees, whose shade affords a cool retreat from the heat, and dust, and parched and sultry avenues of the city. There are several hotels, or places of refreshment, both in the village and on the Wissahickon, and there is no lack of material to gratify or amuse the visitor. The drive from the city is very refreshing — the road being remarkably smootfe, and studded all along with handsome cottages and tasteful scenery, as well as objects of historical and general interest. It is : .;:;. ;.:iiftiilii v.-..--:,;-.,....,,. THE HIGH BRIDGE ACROSS THE 'WISSAHICKON'. customary to enjoy the ride late in the afternoon, before dusk, while many drive out to partake of the celebrated " catfish and coffee," and return by " the light of the moon." Riding by horse-back, both for ladies and gentlemen, is in these days one of the requisites of a polite education ; — and the taste for the exercise is indulged to the fullest extent — though there is still a corresponding number of vehicles, some of them splendid equipages, to be met on the road. Pic-nic parties are very frequent in this quarter, and the arrange- ments of the Norristown Railroad are no less complete for their accommodation than the attractions of the grounds. 42 OFF- HAND SKETCHES. The engraving on page 41 exhibits a view of the Norristown Railroad bridge across the Wissahickon, near its junction with the Schuylkill. The bridge is a fine specimen of architecture, and viewed in connec- tion with the adjacent scenery, is probably one of the most picturesque scenes to be found in this quarter of the State. It stands seventy- five feet above the level of the water, and is about three hundred feet in length. The entire route of this rail-road, from Philadelphia to Norristown, is full of beautiful and varied scenery, nearly every inch of which is identified, in some way or other, with historical as- sociations more or less interesting. From Fairmount to Manayunk, there is a succession of smiling villas, handsome grounds, and unique cottages, — while the hum and rattle of the loom and the shuttle, the clinking of the hammer, the grit of the saw-mill, the steam and blaze of the numerous iron works and manufactories, no less than the general life and bustle of the way-side, keep the visitor continu- ally on the qui vive of excitement. About one mile beyond the Wissahickon is Manayunk, situated on the east side of the river. It is the seat of very extensive and varied manufactures — embracing cotton and woollen factories, flour and paper mills, furnaces, machine shops, &c. The town owes its origin and onward progress entirely to the facilities afforded by the Rail- road, and the Schuylkill canal, which passes directly through the principal street, and supplies the water-power for all its manufactur- ing establishments. Some of these establishments are among the oldest in the United States, having been commenced in 1819, upon the completion of the canal, and when the present site of the place was overgrown with trees and wild bushes. At that time, Mana- yunk, with some other points lower down, was an excellent spot for shad-fishing ; — but since the erection of the dams in the Schuylkill, this splendid fish has ceased its periodical visits to these waters, and the business, once very considerable, is now entirely discontinued. The present population of Manayunk is probably about seven thousand — almost every person, of both sexes, being engaged in the industrial interest of the place. It was our desire to have presented a view of the interior of a cotton factory, and for that purpose, in company with our artist, we waited on one of the principal factors in that place. Without deigning to see us, he refused to give us admis- sion, and the refusal was couched in terms so sharp and contemptu- MANAYUNK. 43 MANAYUXK. ous, that it naturally suggested a few thoughts as to the moral and social tendencies of the factory system in our country. We never before realized to the extent we did on this occasion, the haughty and austere manner, the cold, biting dignity, which a commanding position oyer two or three hundred poor operatives, is calculated to impress on some individuals. While we are free to admit the ad- vantages which these establishments are capable of conferring, it is not to be disguised that, in the hands of some men, they may be con- verted into engines of great social oppression. The spirit of enter- prise which induces our citizens to make large investments in the industrial pursuits, cannot be too highly admired and extolled ; but the motives which subsequently turn some of them into uncouth and selfish nabobs, are altogether unworthy the character of a gentleman or a republican. The most prominent evils attending the factory system in this country, are the natural results of capital, combined with a specula- tive purpose, to which the factory is made subservient and subordi- nate. Thus, an individual with a capital of one hundred thousand dollars, purchases a favorable location for a factory — no matter what kind — which is to employ from one to three hundred operatives. The location we will suppose to comprise one hundred acres of land, for which five thousand dollars are paid cash, and the remainder «pon a credit of twelve months. The factory buildings are now 44 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. commenced, which will absorb fifteen thousand dollars — one-half to be paid cash, the remainder upon credit. In the meantime, the tract of one hundred acres is laid off into town lots, and twenty or thirty tenements erected, at a cost of four thousand dollars — one-half cash. Thus far about $28,000 have been expended, of which one-half is credit. From ten to thirty thousand dollars are yet required to equip the factory with the necessary machinery, — say $20,000, and we have a total expenditure of upwards of $50,000. There now remains a capital of $50,000 additional to purchase stock, and as a fund to carry on the mill, which is set in operation at high wages for the operatives, and under favourable auspices to attract mechanics, labourers and tradesmen to the village. A brisk demand for houses and lots ensues, and the greater the demand the greater becomes the value — ergo, in a short time probably more than one hundred thou- sand dollars will have been realized from the sales and rents of houses and lots, and thus, without reference to the immediate pro- ductions of the factory, a handsome fortune has been realized from a comparatively small investment. As soon as this manoeuvre is terminated, and when the village is filled to repletion, another card is to be played. The factory cannot be conducted with profit under high rates of wages — the prices of labor must be reduced, or the works suspend operation. Here ensues a panic — a general stag- nation of all the affairs of the village. Many will sell out their houses and lots at a sacrifice, and move away; others will seek new employments, while, in the meantime, some will work on at reduced icages. The speculator now again makes his appearance, and it is not long before a large number of lots are in his possession, and thus, probably to a less extent than before, the same speculation is acted over. "We would not create the inference that our factory system gener- ally is under the influence of such speculative movements ; but we mention this as one of the evils which have hitherto surrounded it. and which have, in a great measure, crippled its operations, and raised an amount of political opposition which could not, under other circ*mstances, exist. But, independent of this, there are other objections, arising from the centripetal agency of such establishments in attracting around them the necessary operatives, always consti- tuting a population more or less numerous. As this population is solely dependent upon the "lord of the loom," it is liable to be THE LIMESTONE REGION. 45 thrown into idleness at his whim or caprice, and thus a general de- preciation of their condition and prospects ensues, while frequently industrious and virtuous families are exposed to want and suffering. Labor is not only degraded by such means, but it is robbed of its just reward, and, as a natural consequence, children of both sexes are driven, by the necessities of their condition, into the factory, where they earn a bare subsistence at the same time that they secure pre- mature graves. It is impossible to contemplate the condition of these operatives without arriving at the conclusion that there is something morally wrong in the system, as well as socially inconsistent with the spirit of our institutions. ANTHRACITE FURNACE ABOVE MANAYtJNK. A short distance above Manayunk is one of the most extensive anthracite furnaces in Pennsylvania. It is situated on the east bank of the Schuylkill, and presents a spirited scene when viewed from the Reading Railroad, on the opposite side of the river, especially in the evening, when the flames issue from the chimneys illuminating the whole establishment in their red glare. These works have been in operation for several years, notwithstanding the recent depression of the iron market, which prostrated a large number of furnaces in the valley of the Schuylkill. As we shall elsewhere make some remarks in reference to the manufacture of iron, we must forbear touching upon that point in this connection. With the exception of the natural scenery along the Schuylkill, there is little of interest or importance until we reach the great lime- stone region which traverses a large area of the south-eastern counties of Pernsvlvania. This limestone formation is a continuation of the 46 OFF-IIAND SKETCHES. great valley of Chester county, and constitutes, by far, its most im- portant feature. It occupies a position in the stratified primary group, and teems with narrow belts and valleys, adapting it for suc- cessful culture as well as for excavation. The largest beds of lime- stone are met above Spring Mill, and alternate in subordinate ridges and valleys of denudation for some distance above Norristown, where the hills of the Mine Ridge, somewhat flattened down, rise through and cut off the basin. The limestone is not uniform in quality, but the lime produced from it is, upon the whole, highly esteemed, and probably the best argument in its favor is the immense quantity an- nually produced and shipped for the supply of Philadelphia and LIME KILNS NEAR SPRING MILL. other points more distant. At various points along the Schuylkill, especially near Spring Mill, Conshehocken, and Port Kennedy, there are very extensive quarries, where kilns have been erected for burn- ing the stone — the canal and railroads, on both side of the river, affording excellent facilities for transporting the lime to market, as well as for supplying the kilns with fuel. The lime kilns are large and substantial, but erected without much regard to ornament. They are generally placed on the slope of a hill, so as to allow the limestone to be hauled to and thrown in at the top. The stones, as placed in the kiln, form an arch over the hearth, with sufficient space between the alternate layers of stone and coal to permit the heat to penetrate and decompose them. The stones are thus thoroughly roasted, and in due time crumble into powder or small white parti- cles, in which state the lime is in a marketable condition. Spring Mill receives its name from a superb spring, which bubbles LIME AND LIMESTONE. 47 up with great force in the midst of a beautiful grove of trees. The water is as clear as crystal, through which the pebbles at the bottom, some thirty feet, can be distinctly seen. It is quite cold in the warm- est weather. Limestone is the general name applied to all massive varieties of carbonate of lime, that form beds of great extent, or mountains. Calcspar is carbonate cf lime in its purest state. It is generally transparent or translucent, the faces of the crystals sometimes very brilliant, but the bases of the hexagonal prism are always opaque. Its color varies, sometimes perfectly colorless, often of a topaz or honey yellow, and sometimes grey or reddish. Exposed to the blow- pipe, carbonate of lime does not swell nor fall to powder, but becomes white and caustic — it is then quick-lime; some varieties are phos- phorescent when heated, and shine with a pale yellow light. Satin- spar consists of fine parallel fibres, either straight or waved, and has a silky lustre ; it fills small veins in limestone rock, the fibres laying across the vein. There is a particular kind of limestone containing a large proportion of bitumen, which, when rubbed or scratched by any hard substance, or slightly heated, gives out a strong fetid odor. Chalk is carbonate of lime of an earthy texture. It forms the cliffs along the south-east coast of England, which acquired for that island the name of Albion. Chalk formations are not often met with in the United States, though it probably exists to some extent. Bockmilk resembles chalk, but it is much more tender. It is found in the clefts of mountains, where it is deposited by water containing calca- reous particles. Stalactites are sometimes transparent, and have the crystalline structure of calcspar; sometimes they consist of parallel layers of different shades of color. This rock is often employed for vases and slabs, under the names of alabaster and onyx marble. Stalactites are constantly forming in nearly all rich limestone forma- tions of a cavernous structure. In the district of Port Kennedy, a few years ago, an extensive cavern was reached, where the process of the accumulation of stalactitic matter was illustrated. They are produced from the drippings of minute particles of calcareous matter, from water which percolates through the roof or sides of the rocks. When a small quantity of moisture arrives at the inner surface of the roof, before a drop is formed sufficiently large to fall by its own weight, a portion of it evaporates, and a rim-shaped film of solid matter is left adhering to the rock. Every succeeding drop 48 OFT-HAND SKETCHES. increases the thickness of this film, until at length a slender tube ia formed, which is constantly increased in thickness as well as in length. In general, the interior is quickly filled up, and becomes perfectly solid ; but sometimes the stalactites are hollow throughout a great part of their length. At Port Kennedy, where the process of formation had been interrupted while yet in its incipient stages, the stalactites coated the interior rocks with irregular thin fibres, in some cases forming conical arches, with borders of variegated color, and in others forming pyramids on the floor. The cavern was an object of considerable curiosity during the brief period it was open to visitors, and its numerous chambers presented an aggregate area fully equal to many of our largest public buildings. A concert was held in one of its largest saloons, on the fourth of July, 1846, at which several hundred persons were present. The limestone formations of this State, at numerous points, afford several varieties of superior marble. The eastern portion of the state, drained by the Schuylkill, is particularly rich in this valuable mineral, and finds a cheap and easy outlet to market. Much of the marble used for building purposes, as well as for monuments and articles of furniture, is obtained within a range of from ten to twenty- five miles around Philadelphia. The extensive buildings comprising the Girard College, were in part constructed from marble obtained in this neighborhood. There are several productive quarries in Lan- caster and other counties ; but those of Chester and Montgomery are the most extensive and abundant. Some of these quarries are over one hundred and fifty feet in depth, and powerful levers are used to hoist the massive pieces from their beds. At Conshehocken there is an extensive marble mill, where the rough pieces are sawed into patterns to suit the demands of the market. It is worthy of remark, that the edges of our limestone basins usually afford a marble of conglomerated character, beautifully variegated in color, similar to a variety of the Potomac marble, or to that constituting the interior pillars of the House of Kepresentatives at Washington. This marble is a sedimentary deposit, the various pebbles being cemented together by the calcareous matter of which it is composed. Though ex- tremely hard, it is, in some places, susceptible of the finest polish, and the reflection of the atoms upon the polished surface, at first glance, gives the impression of roughness, which is only dispelled by rubbing your hand upon it. A fine deposit of this peculiar rock lies THE COPPER REGION. 49 near Bainbridge, in Lancaster county ; also near Reading, in Berks county, while it is elsewhere met with along the borders of our lime- stone beds, in the vicinity of slate and shale. This extensive region of limestone, which occupies, in numerous distinct belts or basins, a large portion of the area of what is termed the Atlantic slope is also associated with several useful metals, as the ores of copper, iron, lead, chrome, &c. The region of copper is principally north of the Mine Ridge — (the first chain of elevation met with proceeding in a north-west course,) and outcrops at various points in Pennsylvania, between New Jersey and Mary- land, which States it also penetrates. The most extensive deposit is probably in Adams county, where ample preparations for mining have recently been made, in the immediate vicinity of Gettysburg. Mining explorations were also conducted, until lately, in the vicinity of Pottstown, but the ore was not found to be sufficiently productive to justify the continuation of the enterprize. More recently, opera- tions have been commenced near Valley Forge, and the probability is, that they will prove successful. In various other points attention has been directed to this vast mineral formation, and the time is evidently not far distant, when the eastern portion of Pennsylvania will be as noted for its mines of copper and lead, as other parts of the State now are for their inexhaustible and extraordinary deposits of coal and iron. Native Copper. — Like most of the native metals, it crystallizes in the octa- hedral system ; but perfect crystals are seldom met with. It occurs sometimes in very large masses, but most frequently in branching and leaf-like forms, scattered among the veinstone, or penetrating it; and the surface of these rami- fications is often thinly coated with green carbonate of copper, or tarnished with a brown color. In general it is very nearly pure copper, and has the color, hardness, and malleability of the refined metal, as we are accustomed to see it — sometimes it contains a minute proportion of silver. — (Varley's Mineralogy) Lake Superior is the most extensive region in the world for the production of native copper. In some parts of that region, the copper is penetrated by threads of pure silver, and grains of the same metal are scattered through it — a circ*mstance which has never been observed elsewhere. Its softness and ready solubility in every kind of acid, and in ammonia, distinguish copper from the few metallic minerals which at all resemble it. Copper is one of the metals that has been known and worked from the earliest period ; — alloyed with tin, its hardness is much in- creased; and this alloy proved the various kinds of bronze of which armor, 5 a 50 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. weapons, knives, and other tools were manufactured by the former inhabitants of both the old and the new continent. Axes and knives from the tombs of the ancient Peruvians and Mexicans, chisels found in the quarries of Egypt, and Roman and Gaulish swords of great antiquity, have been analyzed, aD 1 found to contain from 75 to 96 per cent, of copper alloyed with tin. — (76.) In the mines of Lake Superior tools and implements, and marks of previous workings, have been found, which can only be attributed to a race far anterior to the present era of the human family. The mines of New Jersey were worked by the first settlers long anterior to the Revolution. Ruby Copper. — {Red Oxyde of Copper.) — This substance is of a fine crimson color, sometimes almost black, with vitreous lustre, ranging from semi-trans- parent to nearly opaque. It is brittle, and about as hard as fluorspar, with a specific gravity of 5*6. It is often intermixed with native copper, but seldom with the other ores of this metal. Tile ore is a variety which is intermixed with oxyde of iron and other impurities, and forms thin flattish masses, some- thing like dark colored tiles. Black Oxyde of Copper — which is more oxydated than the preceding species, occurs in the form of a fine black powder, or in small masses of an earthy tex- ture, with some other copper ores. Both this and ruby copper are easily reduced on charcoal to metallic copper. Sulphurets of Copper. — There are several combinations of sulphur with copper, some of which are valuable ores. Copper Glance — or vitreous copper ore — has a dark steel, gray color, and when freshly broken, a perfectly metallic lustre ; but the exterior is often black and dull. It is most generally found in masses without any regular form, or filling small veins. This is the richest of all the sulphurets of copper, affording 75 per cent, of metal, and being in general very free from any other. It has been met with in some of the Cornish copper mines, but only in small quantity — but in the Ural mountains it is an object of exten- sive exploitation, occurring there in nodules of various sizes, disseminated in veins of clay and gravel. Variegated Copper Ore. — This was long considered to be the same substance as copper pyrites, of which the surface was tarnished ; but it differs from it in con- taining less iron and sulphur, affording about 60 per cent, of copper, while cop- per pyrites does not yield more than 33 or 34. It is softer than the latter, and the color much redder — and it is less easily fusible than copper glance. Copper Pyrites. — ( Yellow Copper Ore) — is the most abundant of the English copper mines. Its color is that of brass, and its lustre perfectly metallic and shining, particularly when fresh broken. It is easily scratched by a knife; differing, in this character, from iron pyrites, which is much harder. Groups of small crystals »j?s ;ften sprinkled over other substances, as quartz, calcspar, fluorspar, galena, and blende. When pure, copper pyrites consist of sulphur 35*87, copper 34"40, and iron 30-47. Copper pyrites form veins in granite, THE LEAD REGION. 51 slate, and other rocks, sometimes filling them entirely, sometimes distributed in irregular masses varying in size, and occasionally weighing some hundreds of pounds. Gray Copper Ore. — The composition of this ore varies exceedingly in different localities; but it still presents nearly the same appearance — a light gray me- tallic substance. It consists principally of sulphuret of copper, antimony, and iron, with arsenic, zinc, or silver, and sometimes with all these metals — the pro- portion of the latter, in some instances, amounts to seventeen per cent., when the ore is worked for the sake of the silver as well as the copper. In the same region traversed by the limestone, — (or rather in the valley above the Mine Ridge — ) lead is found outcropping at different points. The ores are of various kinds, and in some cases comprise galena, with a plentiful mixture of silver. Extensive mining ope- rations have lately been commenced in the vicinity of Phoenixville, Valley Forge, and Perkiomen ; while the veins of the basin have been traced, here and there, over portions of the counties of Bucks, Montgomery, Chester, and Lancaster. The ore is, for the most part, pyi'omorphite — (phosphate of lead) a beautiful mineral, but not very abundant at any one district, though it appears to be plenty here. Its color rises from bright grass-green to yellow, orange, brown, and sometimes a dull violet. Most specimens contain nine or ten per cent, of the chlouret of lead — sometimes arseniate, and those of an orange color, chromate of lead. The chromates are found in great abundance in the Mine Ridge, in Lancaster county, of which we shall hereafter take occasion to speak. The ores are found in other spots in various stages of combination with other substances. In Bucks county, plumbago has long been mined to a considerable extent, and there is every reason to suppose that this interesting mineral, like the others, occupies a large portion of the peculiar formation in which it is found. Native Lead is of rare occurrence. It has been observed in small grains and laminae in some volcanic products, and, also, in some specimens of galena. It may be distinguished by its softness and sectility from the galena, which is hard and brittle. Minium (red oxyde of lead) is a red substance, occuring in the form of powder in some veins of galena and calamine. It is the same sub- stance as the red lead used in painting; but for this and other purposes it is prepared artificially. Yellow Oxyde of lead, which is less oxydized than the preceding ore, occurs 52 OFP-HAND SKETCHES. sometimes as a powder, sometimes in solid masses, not unlike yellow jasper; its great weight distinguishes it from all other minerals which otherwise re- semble it. Arseniate of Lead takes the same forms as the phosphate of lead, but the prisms aro often swelled in the middle, so as to have something of a bowl shap/e ; color, generally pale yellow brown, and lustre often silky. Carbonate of Lead — (White Lead ore.) — This is the same substance as the white lead of commerce, which is prepared artificially. It is abundant in soma lead mines, filling large veins or intermixed with the other ores, either compact, earthy, or crystalline. Its crystals are derived from a light rhombic prism, differing very little from that of arthente, and are often grouped so as to form a cross or star. It is the only mineral which equals the diamond in brilliancy ; its lustre, when pure and transparent, being adamantine. When fused by the blow-pipe on charcoal, a bead of lead is obtained ; or if dissolved in nitric acid, upon immersing a piece of zinc (the surface being quite clean) metallic lead will quickly be precipitated on it in brilliant lamina?. When massive it has sometimes a crystalline structure, splitting readily into large flakes, with a brilliant surface. An earthy variety resembling chalk in its appearance is common in some lead mines. But it is a mineral met with not only in lead mines : it is frequently found with copper pyrites and blende. In these situations it often forms columnar masses, with a silky lustre. The sulpho-carbonate of lead, which is this substance combined with about one-third of its weight of sulphate of lead, resembles it in brilliancy and weight, but when dissolved in nitric acid, it leaves a residue, which is sulphate of lead. Ifolybdate of L ead crystallizes in square octahedrons, or very short prisms of four or six sides, of a dull yellow color, and translucent, which contain sixty-four per cent, of oxyde of lead. Sulphate of lead, in its general appearance, resembles the car- bonate of lead, but is rather softer and less brilliant, and may always be dis- tinguished from it by not effervescing with any acid. Gopreous sulphate of lead has been found in a few places, — it is colored by the copper it contains. Galena — (Sulphuret of Lead,) may generally be recognised by its crystalli- zations, and its very perfect cleavages, parallel to the faces of a cube, as well as by its pure lead-gray color. The surface is often dull, but the fracture always brilliant, and it is so brittle that cleavages may be obtained by a very slight blow. The same crystalline structure prevails where the galena is massive, sometimes resembling that of statuary marble ; more rarely it is granular, or compact, with scarcely any lustre. Its specific gravity is 7 - 5 to *I'1. It is easily fused, giving off sulphureous fumes, and affording a globule of lead. Some galena is combined with sulphuret of silver. When this is in sufficient quantity to render it worth the expense of separating the silver, it is called argentiferous galena. In order to know whether galena contains any silver, dissolve a little in nitric acid, and dip into the solution a piece of copper; the silver, if there be any, will be deposited as a white metallic film on the copper THE SCHUYLKILL. 53 '■ Bonrnonite is a sulphuret of lead, copper and antimony — the former amounting to forty per cent. Graphite (Plumbago, or black lead.) The substance called black lead is well known to most persons ; but few, perhaps, are aware, that when they make use of a black lead pencil, they draw with a substance which is nearly identical with the diamond. It appears to be carbon, differing from it, when pure, only in the state of aggregation of its particles ; it often contains a small portion of earthy matter, or of iron; but as the latter amounts sometimes to only one or two per cent, both are now generally considered as accidental impurities. Graphite has always a metalic lustre, with sometimes a fine scaly structure, and soils the fingers when handled. Specific gravity 2 to 2-45. It occurs in several places in the United States, and no doubt a large quantity is deposited in the slaty formation traversing Pennsylvania. For the best pencils, it is used without nny other preparation than that of sawing it into thin strips, which are after- wards enclosed in wood, or formed into thin rods for ever-pointed pencils; but great numbers of pencils of inferior quality are made of a mixture composed of black lead dust, intermixed with clay, and sometimes with lamp black, or sulphuret of antimony. Near the village of Conshehocken, the Schuylkill assumes a most beautiful appearance ; the banks, on both sides, are lined with stately trees, and foliage bending to the water's edge, while the stream is as smooth and clear as one broad sheet of glass. On the LANDSCAPE OX THE SCHUYLKILL. one side we have the Norristown Kailroad and the Schuylkill Canal, and on the other the Reading Railroad, over which are seen passing an almost endless procession of black coal-trains, and as they wind around the projecting knolls, and intervening valleys, a great rumb- ling noise is heard, amidst the shrill whistle of the locomotive ; 5* 54 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. the canal-boats lazily creep along, while around, as far as the eye can see, glorious nature spreads out in rich waving harvest- fields, and rolling elevations, with here and there a cluster of houses nestled amid the luxuriant scene. The village of Conshehocken, though of recent origin, is quite an interesting and important place. It is supported solely by several manufacturing establishments, which are carried on in its midst, and which have sprung up under the facilities afforded by the lines of improvement, no less than the rich and varied resources adjacent. Of these, there is an extensive rolling-mill for the production of sheet- iron, and its manufactures are scarcely excelled by any similar article imported, having a close resemblance to the celebrated sheet-iron of Russia. There is a very large marble-mill, which has already been alluded to, with several workshops of different kinds, and smaller extent ; while a company of enterprising men has just been organized to embark in the manufacture of a new description of useful ware. They intend to manufacture, principally from the lava of the furnaces in the vicinity, a description of glass for mantels, tables, and various ornamental purposes ; and as the productions can probably be af- forded* at low rates compared with marble, and will prove equally durable, if not equally beautiful, there is a reasonable probability that this will ultimately form a distinguishing feature of the place, if it does not originate an entirely new branch of trade. Between Conshehocken and Norristown, there are several extensive anthracite furnaces, as well as manufactories of various kinds. The banks of the river, on both sides, present many beautiful residences, and elegant, well-cultivated farms, while the scenery generally is of that soft and genial character, relieved occasionally by a rocky de- clivity or gently sloping hill, that pleases the eye of the observer, while it impresses him with the spirit of activity everywhere displayed. Norristown, the county-seat of Montgomery, seventeen miles dis- tant from Philadelphia, is one of the most beautiful boroughs in the United States. It lies on the east bank of the Schuylkill, rising to a gradual elevation from the water's edge. The streets are well drained, the houses substantially built, (many of them unusually elegant) the citizens remarkably intelligent, the society excellent, the location healthy, the general aspect that of an industrious and enterprising population, and, in short, the whole minutiae of the borough is such as to render it one of the most attractive with which we are ac- N R It I S T W N 55 NOERISTOTTN". quainted. It contains several very extensive cotton and woollen factories, iron foundries, rolling-mills, and machine shops, with numerous other industrial establishments, of more or less extent, nearly all of which are located on the river bank, and are supplied, like Manayunk, with a splendid water-power from the canal. The present population is probably between eight and ten thousand, and must greatly increase in the future under ordinary circ*mstances of favor. A brighter day than we have known for the last five years is, we think, about to dawn upon our workshops. We hope so, at any rate. Norristown was formerly included in the township of Norriton, comprising a manor belonging to William Penn. The land on which the town now stands was subsequently owned by several parties, when it finally came into the hands of Wm. M. Smith, who, in 1784, laid it out into town lots. During the revolution it was occupied as a farm, and belonged to a certain John Bull, who, notwithstanding his name, was a thorough-going Whig, and the British, on their way to Philadelphia, paid him the passing compliment of burning down his barn. A short distance below the town, on the banks of the river, are still to be seen the traces of former entrenchments or breast-works, thrown up by Gen. Du Pontel, by order of Wash- ington, at a time when he expected the British to cross the river at this place. 56 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The first canal improvement undertaken in the United States, was commenced at Norristown, about the year 1792, of which the outline features are still to be traced. The project contemplated both a navigable water course, and a water works for Philadelphia. For this purpose, the canal was to be carried to Philadelphia on one level, without locks or outlets. After completing several miles of the heaviest part of the work, and spending over $400,000, the company became embarrassed, and were compelled to abandon the enterprize, many of the principal parties having themselves been involved in commercial and financial ruin. The company, however, was after- wards consolidated into the Union Canal and the Schuylkill Naviga- tion, of both of which we shall presently have something to say. Montgomery is one of the richest and most favorably situated counties in Pennsylvania. In all the elements of real wealth and true prosperity, it is unrivalled. The soil consists principally of limestone and red shale — the latter performing well under good tillage, with the addition of the lime close at hand. The soil is tra- versed by several fine streams, of which the Schuylkill, comprising the greater portion of its southwestern boundary line, is the princi- pal ; the others next in importance being the Perkiomen and its branches, the beautiful and romantic Wissahickon and its branches, the Permepack, Tacony, Neshaminy, and others — all of which afford excellent water-power. There are at this time not less than thirty merchant, one hundred and twenty grist, seventy-six lumber, eight marble, twenty paper, thirty-five oil, twelve clover, and about the same number of powder mills, in Montgomery county ; besides which, there are fifteen or more iron-works of various kinds, twenty- five large cotton factories, ten woollen factories, twelve fulling mills, and some thirty-five tanneries. This, for a county comparatively small in area, exhibits a productive capacity not easily surpassed. The county is supplied with some of the best turnpike roads and stone bridges to be found anywhere in Pennsylvania. One of these bridges (that over the Perkiomen) cost over $60,000, and was built nearly fifty years ago. The people seem early to have realized the importance of good roads, and an immense amount of money was freely expended to make them of the best and most durable char- acter. This principle should always be acted upon by the constituted authorities, for nothing contributes more to the lasting benefit, or enhances property to a greater extent, than good roads and bridges. THE FALLS TO NORRISTOWN. 57 The first settlers of Montgomery county were principally Welsh, with a few Germans and English. The Germans gradually dispersed to the northern part of the county, where the language is still spoken to some extent. The Welsh, or their descendants, have long since abandoned their native language, in favor of the predominating English. The early settlers comprised some of the best men who ever landed on our shores — remarkable for their morality, industry, intelligence, and uniform respectability of deportment. The oldest place of worship now standing in Pennsylvania, was erected by them near the present town of Manayunk, in 1695. It was a Friends' meeting-house, and is still occupied by that respectable society. We have thus, somewhat briefly, given an exposition of some of the leading features of this interesting and remarkable valley, from the Falls of the Schuylkill to Norristown. Both sides of the river, we have previously remarked, are traversed by railways, running parallel with the Schuylkill navigation. The extensive manufactur- ing establishments, receiving their driving-power from the river, are all located on its eastern side, which will account for its dense popu- lation and busy aspect, as compared with the opposite shore, traversed by the Reading railroad. It is this fortuitous circ*mstance which creates the sole trade of the Norristown railroad, at the same time that it materially aids the Reading railroad ; — for while the one is in the exclusive enjoyment of the local miscellaneous trade, the other has an abundance of tonnage in supplying a large portion of the fuel consumed. We should judge that at least fifty thousand tons of coal are annually transported by the Reading railroad for the supply of the lime-kilns and ordinary consumers, between Norristown and tho Falls. The two railroads, therefore, (as well as the canal) are aux- iliary to each other's success. For the reason referred to, we have little of interest to note, between the points designated, on the western side of the river. The sce- nery, in general, is attractive ; but owing to the splendid works of man, it has more of an artificial stamp, than the usually broader and more impressive one of Nature. The tunnel above Manayunk — the Schuyl- kill Navigation, with its numerous locks, and dams, and bridges — the towns and villages, with their busy work-shops and towering fac- tories — the numerous lime-kilns, furnaces, and mills — the turnpike roads, with their ponderous teams and carts ; the railroads, with their snake-like trains ; the electric telegraph, with its lofty poles stretching H 58 OFF-IIAND SKETCHES, out, single file, in magnificent procession ; the canal-boats, with their faithful, tugging horses, and sun-burnt crews — all evince the restless activity of man, and proclaim his glory to the passing observer. Leaving Norristown, we cross the Schuylkill by a splendid wooden bridge (indicated in the engraving), eight hundred feet in length, and again join the Reading railroad, which henceforth traverses every town and village on our route. Here, indeed, is a sprightly little village before us, just embarking in the world. It is but yesterday since '♦it set up," and already we find it a considerable town, under the name, style and title of Bridgeport. The Reading Railroad is the guardian and patron of the little fellow, and under its friendly auspi- ces it will grow and thrive, until it becomes a good-sized, old-fashioned borough. After leaving Bridgeport, four miles beyond, we reach the village of Port Kennedy, of which we have already spoken in connection with the production of lime, constituting its sole trade. Two miles beyond this place is Valley Forge. Here every inch of ground is sacred to the cause of liberty and patriotic suffering. There is not a heart in America — there is not a lover of liberal institutions anywhere, that will not swell with mingled awe and admiration, as he contem- plates the scenes and incidents with which this region is identified. Here was concentrated, in the darkest hour of the revolution, the sole reliance of freedom against oppression ; here were centered our hopes and our fears — here were quartered, amid the snows and blasts of a severe winter, without clothing, and almost without food, sick, famished, barefooted, and dying, Wash- ington and his army. Valley Forge derives its name from a forge which stood near the mouth of valley creek, some time previous to the revolution. The grounds occupied by the largest portion of the encampment comprised both sides of the hill, south-east of the stream. The name of this hill is Mount Pleasant, and of that on the other side of the stream, Mount Misery. These terms were bestowed by "William REDOUBT AT VALLEY FORGE. VALLEY FORGE. 59 Penn, who, on one occasion, lost his way on the latter hill, and hav- ing regained it on the former, bestowed the names accordingly. Seve- ral extensive redoubts and breast-works were thrown up at sundry places, some of which, on the south-eastern side of the hill, are yet distinctly visible, and of which the engraving on page 58 conveys r. correct idea. These works consist of large embankments of earth, arranged one after the other, along the slope of the hill, so that, in case of attack, the men could remain behind them, secure from the fire of the enemy. These breast-works, moreover, were surrounded with deep ditches, thus rendering the approach of the enemy hazar- dous amidst the fire of the soldiers within the redoubts. The re- doubts now lie in the depths of the forest, but their outlines, as well as the former sites of the miserable huts of the soldiers, are still dis- tinctly visible. The head-quarters of General Washington were in a Washington's quarters at valley forgi small stone house, which stands near the railroad, and from which a good view of it is afforded. A slight addition has recently been made to the back buildings, which originally consisted only of a small kitchen, erected by "Washington himself. The room occupied by the General had a secret closet, in which he kept his official papers. In other respects the house is quite small, and without interest. "Washington moved with his army to this romantic spot soon after GO OFT-HAND SKETCHES. the battle of Germantown. He had previously been following the British in their movements along the Schuylkill, and finally attacked them at that place. It was after this engagement, therefore, that he took up his winter quarters in this place — a step which was dictated by the best motives of prudence and the public good. " His soldiers," says Mr. Day, " were too ill-clothed to be exposed to the inclemency of that season under mere tents ; it was therefore decided that a sufficient number of huts or cabins should be erected of bgs filled in with mortar, in which the troops would find more ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FORGE. comfortable shelter. The army reached the valley about the 18th of December. They might have been tracked by the blood of their feet, in marching barefooted over the hard, frozen ground between White- marsh and Valley Forge. They immediately set about constructing their habitations, which were disposed in the order of a military camp, but had really the appearance of a regular town. Each hut was 16 feet by 14. One was assigned to twelve privates, and one to a smaller number of officers, according to their rank. Each General occupied a hut by himself. The whole encampment was surrounded WASHINGTON AT VALLEY FORGE. 61 on the land side by intrenchments, and several small redoubts were built at different points. A temporary bridge was thrown across the river, to facilitate communications with the surrounding country. The army remained at this place until the ensuing summer, when the British evacuated Philadelphia. This was the most gloomy epoch of the revolution. For many weeks the army, although sheltered from the wind, endured extreme sufferings from the want of provisions, blankets, and clothing! The Commissary's department, through neglect in Congress, had been badly managed, and on one occasion the supplies of beef were actually exhausted, and no one knew whence to-morrow's supply would come. Gen. "Washington says, "For some days there has been little less than a famine in camp. A part of the army have been a week with- out any kind of flesh, and the rest, three or four days. Naked and starving as they are, we cannot enough admire the incomparable patience and fidelity of the soldiery, that they have not ere this been excited to mutiny and dispersion. Strong symptoms of discontent have, however, appeared in particular instances." Such was the scarcity of blankets and straw that men were often obliged to sit up all night to keep themselves warm by the fire, and many were too ill clothed to leave their huts ! The want of wagons and horses, too, was severely felt for procuring supplies, and almost every species of camp transportation was performed by the men without a murmur, who yoked themselves to little car- riages of their own making, or loaded their wood and provisions on their backs. The small-pox threatened those who had not been inoculated. Provisions con- tinued to grow more and more scarce ; the country had become exhausted by the constant and pressing demands of both armies, and no doubt many pro- visions were concealed from the Americans by the disaffected tories, who found a better market at Philadelphia, and better pay in British gold, than in continental money. Washington stated that there were in camp on the 23d December, not less than 2898 men unfit for duty by reason of their being barefoot and other- wise naked, besides many others detained in hospitals, and crowded into farmer's houses, for the same causes. Happily for America, there was in the character of Washington something which enabled him, notwithstanding the discordant materials of which his army was composed, to attach both his officers and soldiers so strongly to his person, that no distress could weaken their affection, nor im- pair the respect and veneration in which he was held by them. To this is to be attributed the preservation of a respectable military force under circ*mstances but too well calculated for its dissolution. In the midst of these trying scenes, a strong combination was formed against Washington, in which several members of Congress, and a very few officers of the army were engaged. (See Reading.) Gen. Gates, exulting in his laurels recently gained at Saratoga, Gen. Lee, and Gen. Conway, (neither of them native Americans !) were at the head of this movement, and the strongest 6 62 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. attempts were made to involve Gen. Lafayette into it also, but he openly and promptly avowed his attachment to Washington, and spurned the insidious efforts to supersede him in favor of Gates. The result of this base conspiracy is well known — it did not injure "Washington, while it consigned the authors to the contempt of the public. Conway, the principal party in the affair, an Irishman by birth, was called to account, and finally died from the effects of a wound received in a duel with Gen. Cadwallader. Gates never could give a satisfactory explanation of his conduct, and the consequence is a blur on his reputation, which no previous or subsequent act of his has been able to obliterate. It was during the encampment at Valley Forge, that the brave and kind- hearted Baron Steuben joined the American army — a position having been va- cated by the subsequent resignation of Gen. Conway. Steuben, as is well known, was one of the most thorough military disciplinarians in Europe, and it was through his talents and instructions that our men acquired a facility and precision in military tactics which soon after enabled them to carry the Revolu- tion to a glorious termination. Mr. Headley, in speaking of Steuben, says : " A more sorry introduction to our army, for one who had served in Europe, could not well be conceived. He had found our cities in possession of a powerful enemy, and when he came to look for the force that was to retake them, he saw only a few thousand famished, half-naked men, looking more like beggars than soldiers — cooped up in miserable log huts, dragging out the desolate winter amid the straw. As the doors of these hovels opened, he beheld men destitute of clothing, wrapping themselves up in blankets, and muttering complaints against Congress, which could treat them with such injustice and inhumanity. He was astonished, and declared that no European army could be kept together under such sufferings. All discipline was gone, and the troops were no better than a ragged horde, with scarcely the energy to struggle for self-preservation. There was hardly any cavalry, but slender artillery, while the guns and ac- coutrements — a large portion of them — were uufit for use. Our army had never before been in such a state, and a more unpropitious time for Steuben to enter on his work could not have been selected. Nothing daunted, however, and with all the sympathies of his noble nature roused in our behalf, he began, as soon as spring opened, to instruct both officers and men. His ignorance of our language crippled him at first very much ; while the awkwardness of our militia, who, gathered as they were from every quarter, scarcely knew the manual exercise, irritated him beyond measure. They could not execute the simplest manoeuvre correctly, and Steuben, who was a choleric man, though possessed of a soul full of generosity and the kindliest feelings of human nature, would swear and curse terribly at their mistakes, and when he had exhausted all the epithets of which he was master, would call on his aid-de-camp and ask him to curse in his stead ! Still the soldiers loved him, for he was mindful of their sufferings, and often his manly form was seen stooping through the doors of their hovels, to minister to their wants and relieve their distresses. BARON S T E U B E N — W HITEMARSH. 63 It was his practice to rise at three o'clock in the morning, and dress his hair, smoke, and take a cup of coffee, and at sunrise be in the saddle. By that time also, if it was a pleasant day, he had the men marching to the field for their morning drill. First, he would place them in line, then pass along in front, carefully examining their guns and accoutrements, and inquiring into the con- duct of the subordinate officers. The fruit of his labor soon appeared in the improved condition of his men, and Washington was very much impressed with the value of his services. Owing to his recommendation he was made Inspector General. This branch of the service now received the attention it deserved, and discipline, before irregular, or practised only under particular leaders, was introduced into every portion. All the arrangements, even to the minutest, were planned and perfected by Steuben, and the vast machinery of our army began to move in harmony and order. He had one company which he drilled to the highest point of discipline, as a model by which to instruct the others. The result of all this was seen in the very next campaign, at the battle of Mon- mouth. Washington there rallied his men when in full retreat, and brought them into action under the very blaze of the enemy's guns. They wheeled like veteran troops into their places, and then moved steadily on the foe. For some time previous to his encampment at Valley Forge, Gen. "Washington had his head-quarters at Whitemarsh, in Montgomery county, (a few miles east,) a view of which is here afforded. The WASHINGTON S HEAD-QUARTERS AT WHITEMARSH. whole surrounding country is full of incidents connected with the movement of the army in this vicinity, and all have more or less interest to the American reader ; but we agree with the poet, that — 6-1 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The camp has had its day of song — The sword, the bayonet, and the plume, Have crowded out of rhyme too long The plough, the anvil, and the loom. Oh, not upon our tented fields Are Freedom's heroes bred alone ; The training of the ivorshhop yields More heroes true than war has known. Who drives the bolt, who shapes the steel, May, with a heart as valiant, smite, As he who sees a foeman reel In blood before his blow of might ! The skill that conquers space and time, That graces life, that lightens toil, May spring from courage more sublime Than that which makes a realm its spoil. Valley Forge contains a cotton factory, with some other minor manufacturing establishments, and has had a considerable accession to the population during the last few years. It is surrounded with a rich and populous agricultural district, in which are located several furnaces and ironworks. The copper formation before alluded to outcrops here, and there is, besides, a considerable quantity of iron ore in the adjacent hills. The observatory on the summit of the hill was erected by Charles H. Rogers, Esq., the liberal-minded proprietor of the land and the cotton factory. It commands a magnificent land- scape scene. The beautiful valley of the Schuylkill, richly carpeted with greensward and soft foliage, and traversed by several streams whose bridges rise above the swelling harvest-fields, stretches out before the eye. Far off the blue Kittatinny range is seen, into whose hazy atmosphere the picture gradually fades. The Schuylkill river, at the foot of the hill, winds gracefully around a broad projecting alluvial flat, beautifully shaded with tall trees, and fringed with wild bushes, very nearly in the centre of which stands the princely country house of Dr. Wetherill, and nearer the river the country mansion of John Price Wetherill, Esq. The spirit of the scene is greatly en- hanced by the noise of the coal trains passing over the railroad, and which is echoed to the surrounding hills — no less than the view afforded of the trains themselves, often embracing one hundred and thirty loaded cars, each containing between four and five tons of coal ! If any one desires to be impressed with the idea of stamina— of real PHCENIXVILLE. 65 greatness — of enterprise — let him stand on a commanding eminence, and behold a coal-train, nearly half a mile in length, rumbling and tearing by with extraordinary speed ! But stand in the observatory and drink in the whole glorious scene — rich, and varied, and beautiful beyond description. Could unhappiness dwell amidst such plenty — such luxuriance — such inspiring incidents ? It ought not ; yet man is weak — Had he been made, at nature's birth, Of only flame or only earth, Had he been formed a perfect whole Of purely that, or grossly this, Then sense would ne'er have clouded soul, Nor soul restrain the sense's bliss ! Oh, happy, had his light been strong, Or had he never shared a light, Which shines enough to show he 's wrong, But not enough to lead him right. Four miles above Valley Forge, and twenty-seven from Philadel- phia, is the borough of Phcenixville, situated in the valley of French creek, at its junction with the Schuylkill. Phcenixville is a very pleasant borough, containing a population of some thirty-five hun- dred — of whom probably eight hundred are engaged in its industrial establishments. Probably the first nail-works in this part of the country were erected here, where the creek affords a fine head of water. After having passed through the hands of three or four dif- ferent parties, the works, upwards of twenty-five years ago, came into those of Messrs. Keeves &- Whittaker. The present style of the firm at this place, is Eeeves, Buck & Co. — Joseph Whittaker having retired a few years ago. His son, Dr. Joseph Whittaker, retains an interest however, and is one of the managers of the works. Joseph Whittaker lives in the stately man- sion directly opposite the rail-road depSt, on the opposite side of the river. We believe he has partially retired from the more active pur- suits of the trade — merely " keeping as many irons in the fire" as is consistent with his old-fashioned notions of leisure. He has some works, of small extent, in view of his residence, and a furnace cr two near Easton ; while two of his sons have an establishment at Havre- de-Grace, Md. The Phoenix Company (Reeves, Buck & Co.) own the iron establishments at Bridgeton, and the nail-works at Cumber- 6* I 66 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. land, N. J., besides those at Phcenixville ; — while Mr. Reeves is the senior partner of the firm of Reeves, Abbot & Co., proprietors of the splendid railroad mill and iron works at Safe Harbor, in Lancaster county. The mill at that place, in connection with the one located here, produced all the iron used in constructing the Central Railroad ; and it is not the least interesting feature of that road, that its rails are the most substantial and reliable of any similar route in the United States. PHCENIXYILLE IRON WORKS. The works at Phcenixville embrace several extensive anthracite furnaces, machine-shops, rolling-mills, nail and cotton factories, etc., among which is the splendid establishment for the production of rail- road iron. A visit to these extensive iron-works cannot fail to prove highly interesting — especially the railroad mill, where some two hundred men are employed. We shall describe the whole process of iron manufacture in connection with the trade of the Juniata, and beg leave to refer the reader to our book on the Central Railroad route for information on this subject. A railroad from this place to Harrisburg, via Ephrata and Cornwall, and traversing the valley of French creek, is now being surveyed. The road will connect with the Reading railroad, and the Norristown Rail- road below. That the enterprise will prove successful, there can be little PHOENIXVILLE. 67 doubt ; as, in addition to the local trade of the route, it will probably become the favorite thoroughfare of travel to the West, and thus strip the State railroad of one of its most important resources. However, the business of the interior is increasing with such ra- pidity, that there will soon be enough for both railroads. This route will be the shortest, as well as the most attractive for trav- ellers, and for that reason, will be preferred. It never can do much business in the transportation of coal, because the route cannot afford sufficient gravitation to carry the extraordinary loads so peculiar to the Reading railroad. This feature of the Reading railroad renders it, in respect to the transportation of coal, the most wonderful im- provement of the age. There are several very good schools and academies in the vicinity of Phoenixville, and it is worthy of remark that while Chester and some of the adjoining counties are celebrated for the number and excellence of their seminaries of learning, a large portion of their support is derived from the Southern States. These counties are nearly all under the influence of the peculiar social and religious tenets of the Quakers, and though their political sentiments are some- times contaminated with sectionalism — the ghastly monster that is now gnawing the vitals of our Nationality — yet, in their social and moral deportment, there is everything to admire. Intelligent and educated themselves, their benevolence of character, rigid discipline, and simplicity of manner, added to their known frugality, industry, and peaceful habits — give them peculiar qualities for the Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot, To pour the fresh instruction in the mind, To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast. Oh speak the joy! ye, whom the sudden tear Surprises often, while ye look around, And nothing strikes your eye but sights of bliss, All various nature pressing on the heart; An elegant sufficiency, content, Retirement, rural quiet, friendship, books, Ease and alternate labor, useful life, Progressive virtue, and approving Heaven! 68 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The Chester or Yellow Springs are situated but a few miles from Phoenixville, and are approached by mail stages. This watering- place formerly enjoyed a high celebrity, and is still visited to some extent ; but numerous similar establishments, springing up in every part of the country, have no doubt materially diminished its ancient attractions. But it is time to leave this busy and pleasant village — pleasant to us with many recollections of the past — dear, as the residence of one of our most esteemed friends, " whose life is gentle," and, like lord Brutus, " the elements so mixed in him, that all Nature might stand up, and say, with a universal voice, this is a man!" But there are others— one of them a distinguished Poet and Traveller, who, even now, is traversing the broad desert plains, amidst the scorching climes of Asia — prominently associated with our " recollections" of Phoe- nixville. It was here that Bayard Taylor, while editor of the village paper, laid a portion of the broad and substantial foundation which is to support his present and his future fame. The beautiful valley stream, we are sure, will always retain a snug place in his memory ; sporting on its clear, calm surface, with a cluster of admiring friends, the bright evenings were made musical. Rowing " by the light of the moon," I Our oars kept time, and our voices kept tune ! After a considerable voyage, during which the poet would enter- tain us with incidents of his unpublished "travel's history," — inter- spersed with the jokes, criticisms, and gossips of others of the adven- turous party — we would reach the "head of navigation" and land upon the green sloping banks, which are sprinkled with gay wild flowers, and shaded with tall majestic trees. Here the perfume of the well-tilled harvest fields, borne along in the cool evening breeze, saluted the grateful senses ; and then, with one accord, all would plunge into the stream, Whose crystal depth A sandy bottom shows, and lave its pure bright waters until, late in the evening, and fa- tigued with the labors of the expedition, we sought Tired nature's sweet restorer — Balmy sleep. PHOENIX VILLE TUNNEL 69 Thus flew the happy, merry summer evenings when Taylor was a village editor, and when the fair prospect of a future glorious career was budding, and gradually opening out before him. Success to thee, poet ! — thou more than poet — soaring eagle ! — hail ! Proceeding on our tour, we pass through a tunnel, a short distance above Phcenixville, which is over 2000 feet in length. It is cut through a solid dark-red sandstone rock, and is probably one of the TUNNEL AND BRIDGE ABOVE PHCENIXVILLE. heaviest sections of railroading ever executed in the United States, as, in fact, the entire road may be regarded as one of the most ex- traordinary, in many respects, in the world. Emerging from the tunnel, and crossing the splendid and substantial stone-arched bridge, the scenery is entirely changed. Here the eager eye may take in a glorious landscape. The Schuylkill, winding around the projecting hill through which we have passed, describes a half-circle in a dis- tance of little more than a mile. As far as the eye can see, a broad and luxuriant valley, lying between gently sloping hills, stretches out, through which wanders the river. The scene is rich in its de- velopment of agricultural fertility, and the green fields sparkle with the neat and comfortable habitations of the farmer. From the moist meadow to the withered hill, Led by the breeze, the vivid verdure runs, And swells, and deepens, to the cherished eye. The hawthorn whitens ; and the spicy groves Put forth their buds, unfolding, by degrees, Till the whole leafy forest stands displayed, In full luxuriance, to the sighing gales. 70 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. *s LANDSCAPE. Passing the stations of Royer's Ford, 32m. and Limerick, 34m. •vve reach the borough of Pottstown, forty miles from Philadelphia. It is very pleasantly situated, in a rich undulating country, on the right bank of the Schuylkill. The houses, which are generally plain but comfortable, are built principally upon one broad street, lying above the railroad, and lined with numerous gardens and shade-trees. The scenery of the country is very fine, but has nothing of the bold- ness mingled with it which characterizes some other spots along this river. The valley is here equally as fertile as it is below, and the Manatawny creek, crossed by a romantic looking old stone bridge, and emptying into the Schuylkill, furnishes the driving-power of several extensive flour and saw-mills. The Schuylkill navigation passes along on the opposite side of the river. Pottstown derives its name from John Potts, who held a large tract of land in this quarter, including that upon which lies the town. "West of it, beyond the Manatawny, is a stately but unique stone mansion, commanding a view of the valley, which was erected by him before the revolution. It was at that time the admiration of the people, and they came from a great distance around to look at it ! Mr. Potts was an enterprising speculator in iron-works, and had an establishment in each of the adjoining counties of Chester and Berks. POTTSTOWN. 71 He was a descendant of Thomas Potts, who early settled at Burling- ton, N. J., and was the father of Isaac Potts, who erected the iron- works at Valley Forge, from which that place derives its name. His son, Isaac, was at that time sole owner of the land where Pottsville now stands, but sold it long before it was known to contain coal. This tract afterwards came into the hands of a German named Potts, some of whose descendants still reside there, and we may probably allude to them again, in speaking of the coal formation, and the trade which it has originated. The population of Pottstown may be estimated at two thousand. There are several quite handsome churches, two large boarding schools, &c. The machine shop, and car factory, belonging to the company, are quite prominent and im- posing buildings. The extensive copper formation already spoken of, has several outcrops near this borough, where mining operations were prosecuted several years ago. The ore, however, was not rich enough to justify the continuance of the enterprize. We are not sure whether the ore proved deficient in quality, or whether the difiiculties of mining it were too great and expensive to pay. Operations have, however, been discontinued for the present. After leaving Pottstown, we soon enter the county of Berks — a rich and populous county, originally settled by Germans, and still more or less under the influence of its primitive characteristics. The general aspect and quality of the soil is rich, and its fertility is maintained, in the absence of scientific principles elsewhere called to aid, solely by hard labor. The first lesson (and often the only lesson) a Berks county farmer teaches his children, is upon the sub- ject of labor, accompanied always with practical illustrations. The philosophy of the " shovel and de hoe," the plough, the harrow, and the team, is thoroughly expounded. It is no uncommon sight to see the father in the field plowing, with a little boy, scarcely able to walk, sitting on the horse, with a whip ; while it is equally as com- mon to see boys of fourteen guiding the plough, and turning over ay pretty and graceful a furrow as could be desired. The old princi- ples of cultivation are thus inculcated and handed down from father to son ; and education — scholastic, social, or moral — has thus far had very little influence upon them. Like their fathers, they neither read nor travel — but believe in religion, democracy, and General Jackson. An anecdote is recorded of two Berks county farmers, which ex- 72 OTF-HAND SKETCHES. hibits the awkward simplicity of their business transactions. The individuals were neighbors, and frequently borrowed small sums of money from each other, which was promptly paid back at the specified time. They lived thus for many years, and both prospered by their indefatigable industry. At length one of them was compelled to provide himself with a new and larger barn, and as his " available" means did not quite suffice, he concluded to call on his old neighbor for the balance. His request was promptly complied with, and, after the money had been paid over, it was prudently suggested by the borrower himself that a promissory note should be received, "so as dat he might know dat de money must be baid." The note was drawn, whether payable to the bearer or not, we do not know — but it was mutually concluded that, as he had received the money, and was to return it at the specified time, he was the proper person to take charge of the note, which he did ! — thus reversing the usual order of things. Time flew round, and, promptly at the time specified, the borrowed money was restored, and with it the note, so " dat de lender might know as dat the money haf been baid I" Douglassville, 44J m. and Birdsboro', 49 m. are two unimportant stations on the road. Between Pottstown and Reading, there are several very pretty landscape scenes, which the observant traveller will not fail to notice. "When within a mile or two of the latter place, the railroad winds along upon the side of a high precipitous hill, and penetrating a stratum of hard rock, irregular fragments of which are left standing by the side of the road, in bold and craggy peaks. Below the rail- road, in almost perpendicular descent, flows the Schuylkill, which gracefully winds round a projecting mound of land on the opposite side, and reflects, in its clear and unruffled surface, the dark moss- covered rocks and wild bushes overhanging its banks. Winding swiftly around this mountain spur, we emerge into a wide valley or basin, hemmed in with high and sloping mountains, at the foot of which the city of Reading is situated. The city is a beautiful and healthy place, and has long been the retreat of strangers and trav- ellers during the summer months. During the revolution, while the city of Philadelphia was constantly intimidated with sudden incur- sions from the enemy, Reading was the principal place of resort and refuge. Here some of the most distinguished citizens of the com- monwealth temporarily established themselves. The effect of their READING 75 R.TELFER SC RAILROAD CURVATURE NEAR READING. presence and social intercourse with the citizens, was subsequently felt upon the society and general tone of the place, which is now, indeed, noted for its substantial, liberal, and comprehensive spirit, no less than the social good feeling, hospitality, and intelligence of its citizens, individually ; for while the people of the county cannot generally be complimented for their intelligence, it must not be inferred that Reading is included with them. Nothing would be more unjust — for while it is true that the people are somewhat influ- enced by the tone of the country sentiment, it is equally true that the latter is also very much directed by the city ; so that, considering their mutual dependency, and the equilibrium existing between them, it is owing principally to the popular sentiment of Reading that the people of the county have progressed, as far as they have, in educa- tion and the usages of modern society. Reading possesses, to a very remarkable extent, all the requisites for great industrial enterprise. The agricultural resources of the 76 opf-hand sketches. county — of which it is the judicial seat — are truly enormous. The soil is drained by numerous streams of large volume, which, following the narrow alluvial valleys intervening between the mountain ranges, afford water-power of unlimited extent, and applicable to every description of manufacture. Iron ore, of various qualities, abounds throughout the whole county, and there are several rich deposits in the vicinity of Reading. The calcareous conglomerate, previously alluded to as appearing in the red shale deposits along the Mine Ridge and Blue Mountain ranges, in this county lies near the Schuylkill, in the vicinity of Reading. It is known as the " Potomac marble," and when not too hard to polish, must be considered as very valuable. Copper ore also occurs at several points, but generally in such small quantity, and so mixed with iron, as to render the expediency of working it rather doubtful. But what is most important to this city, and which has given it, within the last few years, an impulse of great industrial vigor, is the coal trade, from whose beds it is distant thirty- six miles. Added to this, is its accessibility, by canal, to the Susque- hanna, and by both railroad and canal to Philadelphia and Potts- ville, giving it a commanding interior position, which must ultimately be used to its great and permanent benefit. The Union Canal, which unites with the Schuylkill Navigation at Beading, was the first canal route ever surveyed in this country, and a brief notice of some of the ptrsons and circ*mstances associated with it, will probably not be without interest. George W. Smith, Esq., in an article first published iD Hazard's Register, says that William Penn, in his proposals for a second settle- ment in the province of Pennsylvania, promulgated in 1690, alludes to the practicability of effecting a communication by water between the Susquehanna and the Schuylkill. Canals and turnpikes were unknown at this period, even in Great Britain. Numerous interesting letters of distinguished citizens are extant, which prove that the Union is indebted to this State for the first intro- duction of canals and turnpikes to public attention. Their views were regarded at that early period, (1750 to 1760) with but little interest in England, and excited the attention of but few in the colonies. At the present day it is diffi- cult to determine to whom we are chiefly indebted for introducing the subject to public attention. If our information be correct, we may attribute to David Bittenhouse (the astronomer), and Dr. Wm. Smith, provost of the University of Pennsylvania, the credit of being the first laborers in this hitherto untrodden field. Afterwards Bobert Morris, the financier of the Bevolution, and stil] later Bobert Fulton, the engineer, and inventor of steamboats, of whom Penn- sylvania is justly proud, lent their powerful assistance. The writings of Turner, THE UNION CANAL. 77 Comae, Win. J. Duane, and Samuel Breck, Esqrs., and subsequently of Gerard Rallston, Richard Peters, Jr., Matthew Carey, Samuel Mimin, Wm. Lehman, John Sergeant, and others, are too well known to require enumeration. In 1762, David Rittenhouse, (and Dr. Smith, above mentioned, associated with him,) surveyed and levelled a route for a canal to connect the Susquehanna with the Schuylkill, by means of the Swatara and Tulpehocken creeks — the former emptying into the Susquehanna at Middletown, twelve miles below Harrisburg, and the latter emptying into the Schuylkill near Reading. The Union canal, which has since accomplished this object, passes over a portion of the route thus surveyed — and this is the first region ever surveyed in the colonies for a canal. The views of the projectors of this work were, if the diffi- culties of that period be duly considered, far more gigantic and surprising than have been entertained by their successors in any part of the Union. They con- templated nothing less than a junction of the eastern and western waters of Lake Erie and of the Ohio with the Delaware, on a route extending 582 miles ! The Alleghany mountain was deemed to offer an insuperable obstacle to a con- tinuous navigation — and to overcome this a portage was accordingly recom- mended; — an expedient which we, at a very recent period, were compelled to adopts but which now, in the full era of steam locomotion, will soon be proudly overcome by our iron horses. Duly to appreciate the enterprise of that age, we ought to consider that the great valley of the Ohio and Mississippi was almost one boundless forest, unin- habited but by the beasts of the forest, and the Indians. Attainable monied capital was then almost unknown in the colonies; the very term "engineering" was equally unknown in the vocabulary of those days. No canal was then in existence in England. Public opinion, even then, had yet to learn that canals were not visionary undertakings. The sneers of many were to be encountered ; nevertheless, under all these trying discouragements, the earliest advocates for inland navigation commenced their efforts in Pennsylvania. In 1769 they induced the American Philosophical Society to order a survey for a canal to connect the Chesapeake bay with the Delaware — a work long since in successful operation. The provincial legislature, about the same period, authorized a sur- vey of a route, extending five hundred and eighty-two miles, to Pittsburg and Erie. This survey was performed, and a report made strongly recommending the execution of the project. The adoption of the plan was only postponed in consequence of the Revolution. After the termination of that struggle, several works were commenced in North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland. The canal through the Dismal Swamp, connecting the Chesapeake bay and Albemarle Sound, with the works on the Potomac, James, and Rappahannock rivers, were commenced and partially finished between the years 1786 and 1791. The great project of Pennsylvania was allowed to slumber until the 29th of September, 1791, about a century after William Penn's first prophetic intimation, when the Legislature incorporated a company to connect the Susquehanna and Schuylkill by a canal and slack- water navigation. Robert Morris, David Rittenhouse, W m 7* 78 OPF-HAND SKETCHES. Smith and. others, were named as commissioners. The intention of connecting the eastern and northwestern parts of the State is distinctly expressed in this, and a subsequent act of the 10th of April, 1792. By the terms of this last act a company was incorporated to effect a junction of the Delaware with the Schuyl- kill river, by a canal extending from Norristown to Philadelphia — a distance of seventeen miles, which has already been alluded to. The Schuylkill river, from the former city to Reading, was to be temporarily improved, and thus form, with the works of the Susquehanna and Schuylkill Company, an uninterrupted water communication with the interior of the State ; with the intention of extending the chain to Lake Erie and the Ohio river. Experience soon convinced the two companies that a greater length of canal was requisite, in consequence of the difficulties of improving the channels of the rivers; hence the company last mentioned determined (in compliance with the suggestions of Mr. Weston, a British engineer, whom they had imported,) to extend their canal from river to river, a distance of seventy miles. In conjunction with the former company, they nearly completed fifteen miles of the most difficult parts of the two works, comprising much rock excavation, heavy embankments, deep cuttings, and several locks, which were constructed with bricks. In consequence of com- mercial difficulties, (in which, it is known, some of the chief stockholders were shortly after involved — including the patriot, Morris, who was, in fact, on one occasion, imprisoned for debt !) both companies were compelled to suspend their operations, after having expended upwards of $450,000. The suspension of these works, and, some time after, that of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, had a very disastrous effect on every similar enterprise which was pro- jected for many years after. Frequent abortive attempts were made, from the year 1795, to resume opera- tions; and notwithstanding the subscription of $300,000 stock, subsequently tendered by the State, these companies continued in a languishing condition. In 1811 the two bodies were united, and re-organized as the Union Canal Company, which has ever since been the style of the company. They were specially authorized to extend their canal from Philadelphia to Lake Erie, with the privilege of making such further extension, in any other part of the State, as they might deem expedient. In 1819 and 1821 the State granted further aid by a guarantee of interest, and a monopoly of the lottery privilege. The additional subscriptions obtained in consequence of this legislative enact- ment, enabled the managers to resume operations in 1821. The line was re-located, the dimensions of the canal changed, and the whole work finished in about six years from this period ; after thirty-seven years had elapsed from the Jate of the first work, and sixty-five from the date of the first survey. It is ninety miles in length, including the branch extending to the coal region at Pine Grove, in Schuylkill county. That portion between Pine Grove and Mid- dletown, was enlarged in 1851, and is now equal to the capacity of boats run- ning on the State canals ; but the other section can pass boats of twenty-five tons only. The summit of this canal, about six miles in length, passes over a THE SCHUYLKILL NAVIGATION. 79 limestone deposit, and in consequence of the fissures abounding in this rock, a large portion of the water was lost. A- number of experiments were tried to overcome this loss, such as lining it with clay, planking, &c. The difficulty was, we believe, entirely remedied on the occasion of its enlargement, last year, and the work may hereafter be regarded as complete in all its arrangements and in all the details of its construction, while the coal trade alone will probably soon make it a paying concern. The Schuylkill Navigation, already alluded to in connection with the Union Canal, was incorporated as a separate and distinct concern in 1814, without mining and trading privileges, and hence it has ever been the interest of the company to invite tonnage from all sources, and in every quarter. It was origi- nally designed for the products of the forest, the field, and the mine — all of which abounded in the counties drained by the river and its numerous tributary streams. The forests, especially, were at that period remarkable for the quality of their timber, and the height and symmetrical proportions of the trees; and, among intelligent and sagacious men, little doubt was entertained of the future importance of the coal trade, then without any existence whatever. The Schuylkill Navigation is one hundred and eight miles in length, extend- ing from Philadelphia to Port Carbon, in Schuylkill county. It was erected at a cost of nearly three millions of dollars. It was sufficiently complete, in ISIS, to allow the descent of several boats, and tolls to the amount of two hundred and thirty dollars comprised the receipts for the season. From this year to 1S25, no account was kept of the different articles for which tolls were received, and we are unable, therefore, to determine the amount of tonnage on coal de- scending the valley during this period. The Navigation, however, owing to the imperfection of the structure, was not in a favorable condition for the pro- secution of business during any portion of this period. This arose from the obvious inexperience of the people of that day in canal-building : and obstruc- tions of every description were of course to be expected. Of these, the most frequent were breaks in the banks of the canal, which would not only retard the progress of boats, and render the business extremely hazardous and un- certain, but subjected the Company to heavy expenses for repairs. The revenue to the stockholders was of course very limited; and at no season, we believe, previous to 1830, was it sufficient to yield a dividend of over one-half per cent. — while quite as often a loss would be experienced at the close of the business season. A few years afterwards, however, (1830,) when the coal trade began to assume some importance, the stock of the Navigation yielded very handsome dividends, and continued annually to do so, until it encountered a formidable rival in the railroad, which was extended to Pottsville in 1842. Prom this period, the coal trade became immensely important, and the canal company determined, in 1846, to deepen the channel, and otherwise enlarge and improve their works. The canal was sufficiently enlarged to float boats of 180 tons burthen, while the 80 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. number of locks was reduced from 109 to 71 — eleven of which are guard locks without lift, of which the gates generally stand open, and are, in fact, closed only during freshets. The average time of passing a lock with a boat is about four minutes, at which rate all the locks on the canal could be passed in about live hours ; or, making a reasonable allowance, six hours would give ample time to overcome the total descent of 620 feet — and if, at every lock, a descending boat should meet an ascending one, the whole time lost in effecting the cross passage does not exceed twelve hours. This is an immense improvement over the old navigation. Above the Blue Mountain nearly all the canals are almost equal in width to the slack-water pools formed by the dams. Below the Blue Mountain, the water line of the canal, which is never less than sixty feet, widens frequently to one hundred feet and more. Taking these things in connection with the fact, that about half the length of the navigation consists of wide slackwater pools, and it will be observed that in point of width everything practically desirable has been attained. Several attempts have been made to introduce steam in the navigation of the Schuylkill, — and though apparently attended with some success, have not led to any practical end, as yet. The only steamboats now plying on its waters, are those between Fairmount and Manayunk. If coal could be used for fuel — (of which, by the way, there can be no doubt,) and the machinery made suffi- ciently light to correspond with the tonnage of the boat, there would, indeed, seem to be no practical reason why steam should not supersede horses. The splashing of the water against the banks of the canal, occasioned by the evolu- tions of the paddle-wheel, presents the most potent objection ; — yet this is but a trifle, and might readily be overcome, if sufficient attention were bestowed upon the subject. We look forward to the day, when Prof. Page's brilliant ex- periments in electro-magnetism will find practical application in the ordinary pursuits of life. His electric engine already possesses eight-horse power ; and, inasmuch as the entire machinery consists of but a single wheel, or iron circle, this would be the exact thing to introduce for the propulsion of canal boats. The whole weight of an electric engine of sufficient capacity to propel five canal boats, together with the fuel, for twenty days, would not, probably, exceed three hundred pounds ! The entire length of the Navigation, as previously remarked, is 108 miles — its lockage 620 feet — the burden of its boats 180 tons — the size of its locks, 110 by 18 feet— the width of its canals, never less than 60 feet — and the least depth of water upon the mitre sills 5% and in the clear levels 6 feet. The five leading railroads, and their laterals, to the Schuylkill Navigation and the Reading Railroad, are the Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven, terminating at Schuylkill Haven; the Mount Carbon, terminating at Mount Carbon; the Mill Creek, terminating at Port Carbon, and the Schuylkill Valley, terminating at Mount Carbon. At Schuylkill Haven a very fine dock, nine hundred feet long, sixty feet wide, THE READING RAILROAD. 81 and six feet deep, with its rail seventeen feet high above water, shute and land- ings on both sides, has been constructed by Mr. Dundas. This dock alone is capable of shipping, in an active season's work, at least two hundred and fifty thousand tons of coal, and is leased by the Navigation Company. At Port Carbon, the Navigation Company have constructed an extensive series of landings. A part of these landings below the Mill Creek Railroad bridge, consists of a dock, about nine hundred feet long, sixty feet wide, and six feet deep, with its rail elevated eighteen feet above water, with shutes and landings on both sides. There is room at this landing for thirty boats of one hundred and eighty tons burden to load at once, and it is capable of shipping five hundred thousand tons of coal per annum. In the pool of dam No. 1, the company have erected six new landings, with their rails elevated sixteen feet above the water, and so arranged that six large boats may load at once, without interruption. In addition to these, and also in the upper dam, the Navigation Company have leased and fitted up the long dock, which accommodates six large boats at the same time. Thus, the Com- pany have a variety of fine landings to ship coal coming from the Schuylkill Valley and Mill Creek Railroads, and capable together of shipping near seven hundred thousand tons in a season's work. In addition to the foregoing, the Company have constructed a dock and land- ings at Mount Carbon, similar to the Firth Dock at Port Carbon, and of about the same capacity. We shall probably again refer to these landings when speaking of the coal trade. To guard against the danger of a deficiency of water, to which the Naviga- tion is exposed in dry seasons, they have erected several large dams upon tribu- tary streams at the head of navigation, from which to draw supplies in cases of deficiency. The dam at Silver creek covers nearly sixty acres, and contains about forty million cubic feet of water, which is estimated to be capable, of it- self, of floating about one hundred and twenty thousand tons of coal annually ! The Heading Kailroad, of which we now propose to give a brief description, was chartered on the 4th of April, 1833, and surveys were made the same year, and forty-one miles placed under contract and construction a year afterwards. The charter authorized sub- scriptions to the amount of twenty thousand shares, of fifty dollars each, being a capital of one million dollars, with the right to double it, if found necessary. It provided for an annual meeting on the second Monday in January, and the right of stockholders to cast one vote for every share, not exceeding two ; one vote for every two shares not exceeding ten ; and one vote for every five, for any amount above ten, that may belong to them in their own right or as trustees. Prox- ies to be dated within six months, and only to be used for purposes L 82 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. expressly stated. No blank proxy to be good, and no third person to be substituted. The government of the road is vested in a President and six Managers, who are authorized to make By-laws and all needr ful regulations, subject to the approval of the stockholders at their annual meeting. The President and Managers have full power to manage and operate the road. Special meetings may be called, but no business can be done without a majority in interest of the stock is represented. No dividend to be declared except from the net profits, so that the capital shall remain unimpaired. The charter is per- petual. It was originally designed for its present purpose, an outlet or avenue to market for the Schuylkill Coal Region : but its first charter extended only to the city of Reading, fifty-nine miles from its terminus on the Delaware River, near Philadelphia, as the right of constructing a railroad between Reading and Port Clinton, twenty miles, had already been granted another corporation, the Little Schuylkill Rail- road Company, extending from Tamaqua to Port Clinton, twenty miles. From insufficient means, this company was unable to ex- tend their road, and yielded their right and charter to the Reading- Railroad Company, who, with a further extension of their charter, beyond Port Clinton to Pottsville, went into an active prosecution of the whole work, from Pottsville to the Delaware, ninety-four miles, under one charter, now known as the Reading Railroad. Every Pennsylvanian is familiar with the great embarrassments to the business of the country, checking commercial enterprise, dis- astrous to every branch of industry, and fatal to public and private credit, during the period from 1833 to 1842. Notwithstanding all these difficulties, the friends of this road pushed steadily on with its con- struction, taxing their energies, their means and their credit to the utmost, to insure its speedy completion ; and on the first day of 1842, the first locomotive and train passed over the whole line between Pottsville and Philadelphia. The event was celebrated with military display, and an immense procession of (seventy-five) passenger cars, twelve hundred and twenty- five feet in length, containing two thousand one hundred and fifty persons, three bands of music, banners, &c, all drawn by a single engine ! In the rear was a train of fifty-two burden cars, loaded with one hundred and eighty tons of coal, part of which was mined the same morning four hundred and twelve feet below the water level. THE READING RAILROAD. 83 The whole was under the charge of Mr. Robinson, chief engineer, and Mr. G. A. Nichols, superintendent. The entire capital invested up to this time, including all its vast real estate, locomotives, work- shops, wharves, etc., amount to over sixteen millions of dollars. From that date to the present, its business, its revenue and its credit have increased, in a degree scarcely paralleled by any similar improvement, until its tonnage and its receipts are measured, as at present, by millions. Two continuous tracks of railway extend the whole distance of ninety-four miles, from Pottsville to the .Delaware river, at Port Richmond — situated three miles above the heart of the city, and one hundred and four from the sea, while a branch road extends from the Falls of the Schuylkill via Fairmount, to Broad street, in the city. This portion of the road formerly belonged to the State — but upon the completion of the road to avoid the inclined plane, the canal commissioners sold this section to the Reading Railroad company, who, with characteristic enterprise, put it into immediate repair, and laid down upon it a strong and substantial rail. They also materi- ally strengthened and otherwise improved the railroad bridge across the Schuylkill, so that, instead of awaiting the slow process of being hauled over with horses, the passenger trains are drawn over by loco- motives without delay or hindrance. This branch of the road is used altogether for the coal and miscellaneous trade of the city, including passengers. The rail used on this road is of the H pattern, with both top edges alike, and weighs forty-five and one-eighth, fifty-two and one-half and sixty pounds to the yard ; the lightest having been first, and the heaviest last used. A few tons of other rails, purchased before a further supply of the pattern adopted for the road could be obtained in England, and varying from fifty-one to fifty-seven pounds per yard, are also in use. The track is laid in the most simple manner, the lower web or base of the rail being notched into white oak cross sills, seven by eight inches in thickness, and these laid on broken stone, fourteen inches deep, and well rammed. This method is found admirably calculated for the enormous tonnage of the road, being rapidly and economically repaired and replaced, securing a thorough drainage, and preserving its line and level true, at all seasons of the year. The grades of this road are the chief elements of its success in 84 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. revolutionizing public opinion, on the subject of the carriage of heavy burdens by railway. From the most important branch Coal-feeder of the road, at Schuylkill Haven, to the Falls of Schuylkill, a distance of eighty-four miles, the grades all descend in the direction of the loaded trains, or are level, with no more abrupt descent than nineteen feet per mile. At the Falls, an assistant locomotive engine of great power pushes the train, without the latter stopping, or any delay, up a grade of forty-two and one-half feet per mile, for one mile and a quarter, thus placing it on a descending grade, within four miles of Eichmond, whither it is readily conveyed by the same engine which started from Pottsville, never leaving the train. The bridges on this line are of great variety in plan, and material of construction ; stone, iron and wood being used. The most perfect and beautiful structure on the road, if not in the State, is a stone bridge across the Schuylkill near Phoenixville, built of cut stone throughout, with four circular arches, of seventy-two feet span, and sixteen and one-half feet rise each, at a cost with ice-breakers, of $47,000. (See engraving — page 69.) There are seventy-five other stone bridges and culverts, varying from six to fifty feet span ; all of circular arcs, spanning water courses, branches of the Schuylkill and roads. There are seven bridges from twenty-five to thirty-eight feet span each, built of iron, trussed after the Howe plan, with wrought iron top and bottom cords, wrought iron vertical ties, and cast iron diagonal braces. These bridges are stiff and light, and present a very neat and handsome appearance. As, however, the flooring is of wood, and therefore liable to decay and accident, they have only been used where the width and depth rendered stone bridges imprac- ticable ; the latter being always used in replacing wooden structures, wherever it is practicable. There are twenty long wooden bridges, varying from forty-one to one hundred and sixty feet span, built on various principles, chiefly of lattice work, assisted by heavy arch pieces. Of this latter description, the bridge over the Schuylkill at the Falls is a fine specimen. It is six hundred and thirty-six feet long, consisting of four spans of one hundred and thirty-four, two of one hundred and fifty-two, and one of one hundred and sixty feet over the river. There is one bridge built on Burr's plan, with double arch pieces of one hundred and forty-nine feet span ; and one on Howe's plan, one hundred and fifty-six feet span, also assisted by arch pieces. Besides the above, there are about twenty wooden THE READING RAILROAD. 85 bridges of short spans, from fourteen to thirty feet, built of King post, Queen post, Bowe's truss, and joists. There are also several small iron and wooden bridges. There are four tunnels on the road. The longest of these is near Phoenixville, one thousand nine hundred and thirty-four feet cut through solid rock, worked from five shafts and two end breasts ; deepest shaft one hundred and forty feet; size of tunnels, nineteen feet wide, by seventeen and one-quarter high ; total cost, $153,000. Another tunnel at Port Clinton, is one thousand six hundred feet long, worked from the two ends only ; material, loose and solid rock mixed ; one thousand three hundred feet are arched ; depth below the surface of the ground, one hundred and nineteen feet ; total cost $138,000. The Manayunk tunnel is nine hundred and sixty feet long, through very hard solid rock, worked from two ends ; depth below surface, ninety-five feet ; total cost $10,000. Another tunnel under the grade of the Norristown Kailroad, and through an embank- ment of the latter, is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, formed of a brick arch, with cut stone fa*gades. The depSts on this road are all substantially built, but with a view to use, rather than ornament. At Schuylkill Haven, four miles from Pottsville, is erected a spacious engine house, round, with a semi- circular dome roof, one hundred and twenty feet diameter, and ninety- six feet high ; with a forty feet turning platform in the centre, and tracks radiating therefrom, capable of housing sixteen second class engines and tenders. The principal depots for making up the coal trains are at Mount Carbon, Palo Alto, (situate on the Schuylkill, about one mile, in an angle, from Pottsville and Mount Carbon;) Schuylkill Haven, and Port Clinton. At all of these places, there is extensive side-railway to arrange the cars in trains, as they arrive from the numerous branch roads. Sometimes upward of one hun- dred and fifty loaded cars are attached to a single locomotive, which, at five tons to each car, gives an aggregate tonnage of seven hundred and fifty tons ! No other road in the world can do this ! At Reading are located the most extensive and efficient workshops and railroad buildings of every description to be found in the coun- try. The company's property covers, altogether, besides the railway tracks, some thirty-six acres, the greater part of which is in use for the various occupations required to keep this vast thoroughfare in life and active motion. These shops embrace various departments, in 86 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. which every description of mechanical work required for the ma- chinery of the road, can be supplied. A description of the dimen- sions of the several buildings is probably unnecessary — the reader will be good enough to take our assurance that they are large, very large, enormously large, and, in point of interest and extent, are second to no iron establishment in the United States. About four hundred hands (including men and boys) are employed in the estab- lishment, which embraces an iron foundry and machine shop, brass foundry and machine shop, carpenter's shops, furnaces, smiths, and various other subordinate shops. In short, the establishment builds and repairs all the running-machinery of the road, as locomotives, cars, tenders, smoke pipes, etc., for which purpose all its waste scrap iron is consumed, being remelted and puddled, and thereby a great saving is effected, probably equivalent to some fifty thousand dollars per annum, besides the accommodation and perfect adaptation of the machinery to the road, which it affords. We do not know the items of cost of this establishment ; but it must be regarded as one of the company's most valuable features, and it is now in complete and suc- cessful organization. To arrange the vast details of this road required many years of patient and persevering toil ; and no words can ex- press too strong a compliment upon the business talents of those per- sons under whose auspices it has finally attained its present admirable working condition. For many years the company have been extremely anxious to in- troduce anthracite coal, instead of wood, as fuel for their locomotives. In point of economy, over one hundred thousand dollars would annually be saved, could coal be successfully substituted. Various and numer- ous experiments have been made, and latterly with success. Several engines, calculated to use coal, are now being constructed at their own workshops at Reading, under the direction of Mr. Mulholland. They will be completed and put on the road in a few weeks hence. They are of great capacity, and built with a view, also, to swiftness. "Wood is getting scarce along the line of the road, and the introduc- tion of coal, which can be had on the beds at a mere trifle, will prove highly advantageous to the interests of the company. The difficulty hitherto in the way of using anthracite, we may add, was the intense concentrated heat it would create, materially injuring the works of the fire-box, as well as the boiler. There never was much difficulty in burning the coal — but, under its destructive effects, there was no THE READING RAILROAD. 8/ advantage in using it, and all coals are very nearly similar in this respect. They emit a heat which eats into the iron of the boiler, and, in time, renders it unfit for use. Thus a boiler, heated with an- thracite, will last, say six months ; one heated with bituminous coal will last nine months, and heated with wood, twelve, fifteen, or eighteen months. Now, all the money saved in the cheaper cost of coal over wood, is lost by the injury entailed on the locomotive, for the cost of a new boiler may be stated to be some two or three hun- dred dollars, besides the loss of time required to repair. But the difficulty can, will, and must be overcome. "We know it can, and we will aver that it will, for the Reading Railroad Company have un- dertaken to do it, and with them there never has " been such word as fail." - i A merchandize depot, recently completed at Reading, is one hun- dred and twenty-four by eighty-four feet, to accommodate that rapidly increasing branch of business. About a mile below the Reading depot, where the railroad is nearest the river, most efficient water- works are constructed, consisting of a reservoir on the Neversink hill side, fifty-one feet above the rails, holding seven hundred thousand gallons of water, supplied by a force pump worked by a small steam- engine. Attached to this station are also two separate tracks, with coal chutes beneath, three hundred and four hundred and fifty feet long each, for the use of the town ; two wood and water stations ; a small portable steam-engine for sawing wood, a refreshment house for crews of engines stopping to wood or water ; a brass foundry, passenger car-house, passenger rooms, offices, &c, &c. All the ma- chinery of the main shops and foundry is driven by a very hand- somely finished stationary engine, with double cranks, of thirty-five horse power, built entirely on the works. At Pottstown station, eighteen miles below Reading, extensive and efficient shops have also been erected, chiefly for work connected with the bridges and track of the road, and new work of various descrip- tions. The principal shops here are one hundred and fifty-one by eighty-one, one hundred and eighty-one by forty-one, and eighty-one by forty-four feet. The first shop is covered with a neat and light roof, built of an arched Howe truss, forming a segment of a circle, seventy-eight and a half feet span by sixteen feet rise. At Richmond, the lower terminus of the road, at tide water on the river Delaware, are constructed the most extensive and commodious 88 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. wharves, in all probability, in the world, for the reception and ship- ping, not only of the present, but of the future vast coal tonnage of the railway ; forty-nine acres are occupied with the company's wharves and works, extending along twenty-two hundred and sev- enty-two feet of river front, and accessible to vessels of six or seven hundred tons.' The shipping arrangements consist of some twenty wharves or piers, extending from three hundred and forty-two to eleven hundred and thirty-two feet into the river, all built in the most substantial manner, and furnished with chutes at convenient distances, by which the coal flows into the vessel lying alongside, DIRECTLY FROM THE OPENED BOTTOM OF THE COAL CAR FROM WHICH it left the mine. See engraving, page 36. As some coal is piled or stacked in winter, or at times when its shipment is not required, the elevation of the tracks by trestlings, above the sohd surface or floor- ing of the piers, affords sufficient room for stowing upwards of two hundred and fifty thousand tons of coal. Capacious docks extend inshore, between each pair of wharves, thus making the whole river front available for shipping purposes ; over one hundred vessels can be loading at the same moment, and few places present busier or more interesting scenes, than the wharves of the Reading Railroad at Richmond. A brig of one hundred and fifty-five tons has been loaded with that number of tons of coal in less than three lumrs time, at these wharves. The whole length of the lateral railways extend- ing over the wharves at Richmond will probably exceed ten miles, and affording a shipping capacity for upwards of three millions of tons! and it will probably not be many years before this amount, extraordinary as it may seem, (as, indeed, it really is,) will be annu- ally transported over this great thoroughfare. The company has laid the foundation for a trade as broad as the future destiny of the coal trade itself. A very convenient and neat engine-house is erected at this station ; it is of a semi-circular shape, with a forty feet turning platform outside ; from which tracks radiate into the house, giving a capacity for twenty engines, and their tenders, of the largest class. The building is three hundred and two feet long on the centre line, by fifty-nine feet wide. It is built in the simple Gothic style, the front supported by cast iron clustered pillows, from the tops of which spring pointed arches, and the whole capped with turretted capping. Immediately adjoining are built spacious machine and work shops, THE READING RAILROAD. 89 for repairs of engines and cars, all under one roof, two hundred and twenty-one by sixty-three feet. A visit to this chief outlet of the Pennsylvania coal trade will give the best idea of its magnitude, and of the various branches of industry connected with it. The extraordinary business of this road requires, of course, a large amount of running machinery. The latter consists of about one hundred locomotive engines and tenders, including six or seven in constant use on the lateral railroads in the coal region ; about five thousand iron and twelve hundred wooden coal cars, six hundred cars for merchandise, and some thirty elegant passenger cars. The engines vary from ten to twenty-four tons weight ; two very powerful engines, of twenty-seven tons weight each, are used exclu- sively on the Falls grade, before mentioned. The iron cars weigh over twenty-four tons when empty, and carry five tons of coal. The average load of each engine, during the busy months of the year, is very nearly five hundred tons of coal, (of twenty-two hundred and forty pounds.) The total length of lateral railroads, connecting with the Read- ing Railroad, under other charters and corporations, but all contri- buting to its business, using its cars, and returning them loaded with coal and merchandize, is over one hundred miles. Some of these railroads are constructed in the most substantial manner, with the best superstructure at present used in the country. Of these, it connects with the Mount Carbon Railroad, and the Mount Carbon and Port Carbon Railroad, at Mount Carbon one mile below Pottsville, and with the Mine Hill Railroad and its numerous radiating branches, at Schuylkill Haven, (this road is about being ex- tended to connect with the Shamokin Railroad, thus affording a con- nection with the Susquehanna, and passing through the great Mo- hanoy coal region : — it will thus bring an incalculable amount of additional tonnage and passengers to the Reading Railroad) also at Port Clinton, with the Little Schuylkill Railroad extending to Tam- aqua, and thence into several lateral branches to numerous coal dis- tricts adjacent. The roads have each many miles of branches, pene- trating all the coal districts of this unparalleled region, and the greater portion of their tonnage is, and always will be, transferred to the Reading Railroad ; for so firmly has it established itself into the local arrangements of tlie lateral railway trade of Schuylkill county, that it can always command a large portion of the trade. 8* M 90 OFT-HAND SKETCHES. Such, "my jolly companion," is a brief exposition of some of the leading features of the Reading Railroad. Look at it — starting out, •with one hundred miles of railway branches, from the most extensive deposit of anthracite coal in the world, lying some seven hundred feet above tide-water — look at the road, as it winds its way amidst the rich fields and sloping banks of the Schuylkill, and gradually sinks into the bosom of the most beautiful and populous city on the American continent! One hundred miles in length, sloping grace- fully from the coal-beds to the river Delaware — is not that a beauti- ful idea to contemplate ? Nature has had a hand in it, and enter- prising man has improved what she carefully prepared. She made the route, and raised the coal-beds to their present height with the express purpose, no doubt, of rendering them available to our wants. For this, all thanks ! I'm not romantic, but, upon my word, There are some moments when one can't help feeling As if his heart's chords were so strongly stirred By things around him, that 'tis vain concealing A little music in his soul still lingers, "Whene'er the keys are touched by Nature's fingers. The ground upon which Reading is situated originally belonged to Thomas and Richard Penn, who disposed of the lots, subject to an annual ground-rent. This rent through neglect, had been left unpaid after the Revolution, and when attempted to be collected, some years ago, the accumulated amount occasioned a great deal of surprise and excitement in the place. The rent was stoutly resisted, but a com- promise was soon after effected between the town authorities and the claimants. The public buildings of Reading are amongst the hand- somest in the State. The Court House, the Prison, and several of the Churches, are models of architectural skill, and reflect great praise upon the liberality and taste of the citizens. Reading, says Mr. Trego, was formerly celebrated for the manufacture of wool hats, and the business is still carried on extensively ; but of latter years other branches of manufactures have so much increased as to have given this ancient trade but a secondary rank. Previous to 1836, hats, boots, shoes, and stone-ware were the principal manufactures ; since that time establishments have been put in operation for rolling iron, making nails, casting in iron and brass, manufacturing locomo- READING. 91 tive and stationary steam-engines, rifle-barrels, augers, &c. ; a steam saw and chopping-mill, and several shops for the manufacture of thrashing-machines, corn-shellers, ploughs, harrows, and other agri- cultural implements. Besides these manufactories, some of which are very extensive, and employ a large number of mechanics, a cotton factory is now in operation, embracing some three hundred looms, and employing about the same number of operatives. The mill was finished a year or two ago, and is built in the most substantial as well as ornamental style — with a stock capital of some two hundred thousand dollars. Besides producing excellent ale and porter, Reading enjoys some celebrity in connection with the manufacture of wines. The vine- yards are said to be quite extensive, and the wine is certainly " not hard to take." For certain kinds of wine, we can see no reason why the banks of the Schuylkill should not prove available — the grape attaining here all the pulpy sweetness that characterizes it in some of the most favored lands. The weather, however, is too wet ever to permit the grape to attain the dryness so necessary for the produc- tion of the higher grade of wines; — but, under ordinary circum- stances of favor, wine can be produced at least equal, if not far su- perior, to the horrid adulterated stuff palmed off as wine, and which, heavily charged with impure liquor, makes it justly obnoxious to the friends of the " Maine Law." The common language of Berks county, and some of those lying adjacent, is an impure German, so corrupted and mixed with the more popular English words, that it would scarcely be understood by a well educated German from the fatherland. In many parts of the county, where the inhabitants seldom leave their own neighbor- hood, English is neither spoken nor understood ; but this language is rapidly gaining ground among those of the people who have busi- ness communications with others than their immediate neighbors. It will probably not be long before English and German will be equally used, except in some secluded portions of the county. Among the natural curiosities in the county, may be mentioned Dragon's cave, in Richmond township, which is thus described in Trego's Geography by a gentleman resident in the vicinity. " The entrance to this cave is on the brow of a hill, on the edge of a culti- vated field. Passing into it, the adventurer descends about fifty yards by a rough and narrow passage, and then turns to the left at 92 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. an acute angle with the passage hitherto pursued. After proceeding ahout thirty yards farther, he enters the great chamber, about fifty feet long, twenty wide, and fifteen to twenty feet high, in a rock of limestone. Near the end of this chamber, opposite to the entrance, is the ' altar,' a large mass of stalagmite, which rings under the hammer, and is translucent. Formations of stalactite are found in other parts of the cave, though none so large as the mass just men- tioned." Sinking Spring, near the Harrisburg turnpike, five miles from Eeading, is a considerable curiosity to those who are not familiar with the circ*mstances frequently attending large springs in a limestone region. The water here rises and sinks again in the same basin, which is very deep ; thence finding its way again, under ground, through fissures and hidden caverns in the limestone rock, probably once more to seek the light of day in some other place. A similar phenomenon is found in Sinking Spring valley, in Blair county, which is elsewhere noticed in this work. "We have already stated that, during the revolution, Reading was (as it is now during the summer,) a place of resort for the citizens of Philadelphia. It was here that the conspiracy (for so it should he termed) against Washington was supposed to have had its birth, while the popular sentiment was by no means enthusiastic in favor of the commander-in-chief, owing, probably, to the exposed position of the frontier settlements to the ravages of the Indians, and who, in their bold incursions, rendered Reading itself sometimes obnoxious to their attacks. Alexander Graydon, who was, at that time, on parole, (having been captured by the British, near New York,) gives the following in his me- moirs : " The ensuing winter, at Reading, was gay and agreeable, notwithstand- ing that the enemy was in possession of the metropolis. The society was suffi- ciently large and select, and a sense of common suffering, in being driven from their homes, had the effect of more closely uniting its members. Disasters of this kind, if duly weighed, are not grievously to be deplored. The variety and bustle they bring along with them, give a spring to the mind, and when illu- mined by hope, as was now the case, they are, when present, not painful, and when past, they are among the incidents most pleasing in retrospecting. Be- sides the families established in this place, it was seldom without a number of visitors — gentlemen of the army, and others ; — hence the dissipation of cards, sleighing parties, balls, &c, was freely indulged. Gen. Mifflin at this era was at home — a chief out of war, complaining, though not ill; considerably malcon- tent, and, apparently, not in high favor at head-quarters. According to him, the ear of the commander-in-chief was exclusively possessed by Greene, who was represented to be neither the most wise, the most brave, nor most patriotic of counsellors. In short, the campaign in this quarter was stigmatized as a HISTORICAL NOTES. 93 series of blunders, and the incapacity of those who had conducted it unsparingly reprobated. The better fortune of the Northern army was ascribed to the superior talents of its leader, and it began to be whispered that Gates was the man who should, of right, have the station so incompetently sustained by Washington. " There was, to all appearance, a cabal forming for his deposition, in which it is not improbable that Gates, Mifflin, and Conway were already engaged ; and in which the congenial spirit of Lee, on his exchange, immediately took a share. The well-known apostrophe of Conway to America, importing that ' heaven had passed a decree in her favor, or her ruin must long before have ensued, from the imbecility of her military councils,' was, at this time, familiar at Eeading ; and I heard him myself, when he was afterwards on a visit to that place, express himself to the effect, 'that no man was more of a gentleman than Gen. Washington, or appeared to more advantage at his table, or in the usual intercourse of life, but as to his talents for the command of an army, (with a French shrug,) they were miserable indeed!' Observations of this kind, con- tinually repeated, could not fail to make an impression within the sphere of their circulation ; and it may be said that the popularity of the commander-in- chief was a good deal impaired at Reading. As to myself, however, I can confidently aver that I never was proselyted, or gave in to the opinion, for a moment, that any man in America was worthy to supplant the exalted character that presided in her army. I might have been disposed, perhaps, to believe that such talents as were possessed by Lee, could they be brought to act sub- ordinate^, might often be useful to him; but I ever thought it would be a fatal error to put any other in his place. Nor was I the only one who forbore to become a partizan of Gates. Several others thought they saw symptoms of selfishness in the business, nor could the great eclat of the Northern campaign convince them that its hero was superior to Washington. The duel which afterwards took place between Gen. Conway and Gen. Cadwallader, though im- mediately proceeding from an unfavorable opinion expressed by the latter of the conduct of the former at Germantown, had, perhaps, a deeper origin, and some reference to this intrigue; not that Gen. Cadwallader was induced from the intrigue to speak unfavorably of Conway's behaviour at Germantown. That of itself was a sufficient ground of censure. Conway, it seems, during the action was found in a farm-house, by Gen. Reed and Gen. Cadwallader. Upon their inquiring the cause, he replied, in great agitation, that his horse was wounded in the neck. Being urged to get another horse, and at any rate to join his brigade, which was engaged, he declined it, repeating that his horse was wounded in the neck. Upon Conway's applying to Congress, some time after, to be made a Major-Gen eral, and earnestly urging his suit, Cad- wallader made known this conduct of his at Germantown, and it was for so doing that Conway gave the challenge, the issue of which was his being danger- ously wounded in the face from the pistol of Gen. Cadwallader. He recovered, 94 OFF-HANDS KETCHES. however, and spine time after went to France. While laboring under the effects of this wound, (which was at first supposed to be mortal,) he wrote a letter to Gen. Washington, apologizing for his previous conduct towards him, and ex- pressing the highest admiration of his military career; — as I had the means of knowing that Gen. Cadwallader, suspecting Mifflin had instigated Conway to fight him, was extremely earnest to obtain data from a gentleman who lived in Reading, whereon to ground a serious explanation with Mifflin. So much for the manoeuvering which my location at one of its principal seats brought me acquainted with, and which its authors were soon after desirous of burying in oblivion." Conrad Weiser, a celebrated Indian agent and interpreter, spent the latter part of his life in Reading, where he kept a trading house. He was born in Germany, but came to this country in early life, and settled about the year 1714. He lived much among the Six Nations of New York. He was a great favorite among them, was naturalized by them, and became perfectly familiar with their language. Desiring to visit Pennsylvania, the Indians brought him down the Susquehanna to Harris' ferry, (now Harrisburg, the capitol of the State,) and thence he came across to the Tulpehocken, and thence to Philadelphia, where he met Wm. Penn for the first time. He became a confidential interpreter and special messenger for the province among the Indians, and was present at many of the most important treaties between the proprietary government and the Indians. In 1737 he was commissioned by the Governor of Virginia to visit the Grand Council at Onondaga. He started very unexpectedly, in the month of February, to perform this journey, of five hundred miles, through a wilderness, where there was neither road nor path, and at a season when no game could be met with for food. His only companions were a Dutchman and three Indians. In 1744 he was despatched in like manner to Shamokin (now called Sunbury) " on ac- count of the unhappy death of John Armstrong, the Indian trader." On both these journeys he has specially noted interesting observations relating to a sin- cere and general belief among the Indians, in the interposition of an overruling Providence, and their habit of acknowledging with gratitude all such interpo- sitions in their favor. Mr. Weiser had an Indian agency and trading house at Reading. In 1755, during alarms on the frontier, he was appointed colonel of a regiment of volunteers from Berks county. The Indians always entertained a high respect for his character, and for years after his death were in the habit of making visits of affectionate remembrance to his grave. Col. W. was the grandfather, on the maternal side, of the late Hon. Henry A. Muhlenburg, for- merly Minister to Austria, and during his life one of the most distinguished citizens of Reading, where his family still reside. The country from Reading to Hamburg is more hilly than that which we have already passed, but still maintains a high degree of cultivation. The rolling aspect of the soil, clothed in the richest ver- dure, affords here and there a splendid landscape ; but the scenery is, HAMBURG 95 for the most part, monotonous, until we arrive at Hamburg, where we take leave, for a time, of the pleasant harvest-fields and scenes of agricultural industry, and penetrate the region of mountains. Here the Kittating or Blue Mountain range crosses our course, and, as far as the eye can see, traverses the country in bold and majestic ridges, sometimes sloping gradually into the valley below, and again rising in towering grandeur to the overhanging clouds. Hamburg, 75m. is situated on the left bank of the Schuylkill, near the Blue Mountain, and about a mile from the railroad. It embraces a population of about one thousand, and, being situated in Berks county, is composed mostly of Germans. The surrounding country is a rich agricultural district, and the village is at least very pleasantly situa- ted. The trade of the place is unimportant. But let us hasten on, for — Our heart's in the mountain — our heart is not here, Our heart's in the mountain a-chasing the deer ; A-hunting the deer and pursuing the roe — Oh, our heart's in the mountains wherever we go ! The Kittating is a formidable barrier to our progress, but the railroad has a way to overcome it — or to pass through it. Plain- ly, the road pierces (no allusion to you, General, or any other democrat !) the mountain, and the first thing we see, on emerg- ing from it, is Port Clinton, seventy-eight miles from Phila- delphia, and about six hundred feet above the Delaware river. Here we have a tolerable specimen of the scenery the traveller may expect for some time to come — for he is now in the midst of those bold parallel layers of mountain, broken and distorted into irregular fragments, which constitute the outlines of the great Apalachian sys- tem, and which, under various local names, traverses several States, aud divides the lakes and rivers, east and west of it, into separate 96 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. systems. The scenery here is bold, wild and picturesque, while the whole country looks like a vast "Ocean into tempest tossed." At some places, the mountain sides are steep, rising from eight to twelve hundred feet almost perpendicularly, at the foot of which flows the Schuylkill, or some of its tributary streams. The red shale, which support the outlayers of conglomerate rock, decomposes under exposure to the atmosphere, and the effects of rain, snow and frost, and the debris, borjie off by the streams winding round the mountains, leave the conglomerates, and more durable rocks, repos- ing in awful cliffs and precipices, frequently overlooking the valleys below. Sometimes the mountains slope gradually from their base to the summit, and the harder rocks are strewn over its surface in the wildest confusion, in pieces of all sizes and shapes. The smallest of these stones are carried down the mountain sides by heavy rains, and the noise which the descending mass makes, as the stones are pushed along by the impetuous torrent, is both exciting and novel. It is thus that the narrow valleys have been gradually formed, which will be more minutely illustrated in our geological treatise, which we shall very soon commence. What can be more interesting to the eye of the traveller — to the man of care and business, "dooni'd, for a cer- tain time," to the daily rounds of city-life — than the change of scene which these bold, rolling mountains afford ? Where is the invalid, accustomed to the dull monotonous scenes of level plains, or breath- ing the low and impure atmosphere of the populous city, who would not be invigorated, mentally and physically, in the midst of this pri- meval terrestrial ocean ? Thrice happy he ! who, on the sunless side Of a romantic mountain, forest-crowned, Beneath the whole collected shade reclines ; Or in the gelid caverns, woodbine wrought, And fresh bedewed with ever-spouting streams, Sits cooly calm; while all the world without, Unsatisfied, and sick, tosses in noon. Welcome, ye shades ! ye bowery thickets hail ! Ye lofty pines ! ye venerable oaks ! Ye ashes wild, resounding o'er the steep ! Delicious is your shelter to the soul, PORT CLINTON. 99 As to the hunted hart the sallying spring, Or stream full-flowing, that his swelling sides Laves, as he flows along the herbaged brink. Cool, through the nerves, your pleasing comfort glides ; The heart beats glad ; the fresh expanded eye And ear resume their watch ; the sinews knit ; And life sJioots sioift through all the lengthened limbs. Before leaving this place, which is a point of divergence, it is proper that we should have an understanding with the reader. If the traveller desires to proceed to Wilkesbarre, or to Mauch Chunk, it would he advisable for him to leave the car, and place himself in the train for Tamaqua, twenty miles distant, where stages run directly to the place mentioned. For our part, we must proceed to Pottsville, fifteen miles distant, from which place, dear sir, we'll join you at Tamaqua, and then Follow thee With truth and loyalty. We would cordially invite you and your carpet-bag to accompany us, but that there is no railway communication between the two places, and we have a horror for stages in warm weather. So, fare- well*! If we do meet again, why we shall smile ; If not, why then this parting was well made. p * * Come, ho ! away ! All a-b-o-a-r-d ! Well, leaving Port Clinton, we go puffing, and blowing, and thun- dering amid the wildest mountain scenery, but still keeping by the side of the Schuylkill, which gradually becomes smaller as we ap- proach its head waters — (though we can't see that there is anything "un'nat'ral" in the circ*mstance.) We pass two unimportant post stations — Auburn and Orwigsburg — the former a promising candidate for village importance, and the latter a mere off-shoot of its unfortu- nate god-father, two miles distant — formerly the seat of justice of Schuylkill county. Eighty-nine miles from Philadelphia is Schuyl- kill Haven, containing a population of nearly three thousand. It is the principal depot for the shipment of coal, both by canal and rail- way. Lying in a beautiful valley, it affords the only belt of tillable 100 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. land to be found in the county. The valley is long but narrow, and is dotted with numerous pleasant farms, and surrounded with bold and romantic scenery, of which the annexed figure is an illustration. _%: ^W^te iiBiiiiiiiiiiiSi LANDSCAPE. 9PPI The Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven Railroad commences here, and following the valley for a short distance, throws out several radiating branches, connecting the main road with all the coal ope- rations in the Mine Hill, and Swatara ranges, embracing the rich coal districts of Minersville, ,Tremont, Llewellyn, Branchdale, etc. The tonnage of the road is enormous, and like the Reading railroad to which it is tributary, it has a descending grade throughout its com- bined length. A train of passenger cars runs between Schuylkill Haven and Tremont, via Minersville. The route is a pleasant and attractive one — penetrating the richest coal districts of Schuylkill county. The company have recently obtained the right to extend their road (which is among the most profitable to the stockholders of any other in the United States, at the same time that it is one of the most substantial in its structure,) over the mountain, so as to connect with the Shamokin railroad at Sunbury — thus uniting the Schuylkill with the Susquehanna at that place. It is proposed, we believe, to ascend the mountain by inclined planes, constructed in the usual manner, or upon the plan of those at Mauch Chunk, hereafter de- scribed. This route will afford an outlet for the great and prolific Mahonoy coal region, and the road will probably prove as profitable, MOUNT CARBON. 101 at no distant day, as the main line, with its numerous projecting branches, now is. Three. miles above Schuylkill Haven we reach Mount Carbon, which was formerly the terminus of the Reading Railroad. A large quantity of coal is also shipped from this place, from which several lateral railroads extend to the coal mines in the vicinity of Pottsville, Port Carbon, St. Clair, Tuscarora, and other mining districts. The handsome cottage on the slope of the hill on the opposite side of the river, is the residence of Mr. Walker, superintendent of this section MANSION HOUSE NEAE POTTSVILLE. of the railroad. The stone octagonal building in front of it, is his office. On the left, and near the railroad, is the Mansion Hotel, now conducted by Mr. Head, one of the most distinguished caterers on the American continent. His reputation, in connection with hotels, is so well established, and so preeminently superior to what is ordi- narily associated with country inns, that no remark of ours could add one jot to its value. While proprietor of the Mansion House in Third street, Philadelphia, his guests — always few in number — com- prised some of the most distinguished and opulent citizens which the country could boast. His wines were recognized as indisputably superior to those of any public or private gentleman in the city, while his table d'hote literally groaned beneath the sumptuous dishes spread out upon it. This hotel has recently been materially enlarged and improved. 9* . 102 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. It is the only establishment, in this part of the country, specially adapted for the accommodation of summer visitors to the coal region — being large and airy, and sufficiently near Pottsville to render it readily accessible, and sufficiently distant to avoid its dust and busi- ness excitements. It has an extensive and beautiful park attached, with bowling house, and other arrangements for out-door amuse- ments. The location, as may be supposed from a glance at it, is extremely cool and pleasant in the summer, as well as quiet and retired. The nights are particularly refreshing, and sleep is to be enjoyed, after the heat of the day, with a vigor perfectly unknown in the crowded city. Some time since, the family of Iterbide, formerly Emperor of Mexico, and the family of Mr. Tucker, the distinguished President of this road — (and the Emperor of American Kailway Managers) made this hotel their annual summer quarters. Pottsville, nearly a mile above this hotel, is the great theatre of the anthracite coal trade. It is situated principally on the northern slope of Sharp Mountain, which constitutes the boundary of the coal formation. The present population is about eight thousand, included in which are some of the most active merchants, coal operators, and business men to be found anywhere in the State. The citizens are remarkably intelligent and enterprising, and there is probably no place in the commonwealth where the people combine a greater amount of practical intelligence with the accomplishments of travel and scholastic learning. The evidences of their industrial energy are scattered broadcast throughout the coal region — above as well as oelow ground. Schuylkill county presents a perfect net-work of railroads and canals, and there are probably upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of the former laid down below the surface of the earth. At nearly every turn in the road, the stranger will hear the loud puff of the colliery steam-engines, and the shrill whistle of the locomotive re- sounding through the narrow valleys and passes of mountains. Potts- ville itself contains several large machine-shops, as well as a railroad and bar-iron rolling mill, recently erected. All the stationary steam- engines used in the coal regions are made here or in some of the ad- jacent villages. The heavy machinery used in the railroad mills at Phoenixville and other places, was produced here, and it is probably a sufficient compliment to her mechanics to say, that their productions are properly appreciated where they are subject to the severest test, which i« in tl eir own immediate locality. POTTSVILLE. 105 Pottsville, like all the other towns in the coal region, is of recent origin. Previous to 1824 there was scarcely a dwelling on the spot where the town now stands. The excitement which followed the discovery of coal, brought to the place a swarm of adventurous spirits, which rendered it the focus of unprecedented speculations in coal lands and town lots. In the midst of this excitement, the town took a run-and- jump into existence. It never went through the slow and gradual movements of a baby-existence; but with one tremendous bound, found itself nestling at the foot of a high mountain, swarming with hungry speculators and eager adventurers of every description — young, old, and ugly — green, black, and brown — all huddled together, and " eager for the ; fray." The late Joseph C. Neal, who was one of the motley mass, some years after- wards, wrote the following humorous description of the speculating scenes : In the memorable year to which we allude, rumors of fortunes made at a blow, and competency secured by a turn of the fingers, come whispering down the Schuylkill and penetrating the city. The ball gathered strength by rolling, young and old were smitten with the desire to march upon the new Peru, rout the aborigines, and sate themselves with wealth. They had merely to go, and play the game boldly, to secure their utmost desire. Rumor declared that Pip- kins was worth millions, made in a few months, although he had not a sixpence to begin with, or to keep grim want from dancing in his pocket. Fortune kept her court in the mountains of Schuylkill county, and all who paid their respects to her in person, found her as kind as their wildest hopes could imagine. The Ridge-road was well travelled. Reading stared to see the lengthened columns of emigration, and her astonished inhabitants looked with wonder upon the groaning stage-coaches, the hundreds of horsem*n, and the thousands of footmen, who streamed through that ancient and respectable borough, and as for Ultima Thule, Orwigsburg, it has not recovered from its fright to this day! Eight miles further brought the army to the land of milk and honey, and then the sport began — the town was far from large enough to accommodate the new accessions ; but they did not come for comfort — they did not come to stay. They were to be among the mountains, like Sinbad in the valley of diamonds, just long enough to transform themselves from the likeness of Peter the Money- less into that of a Millionaire ; and then they intended to wing their flight to the perfumed saloons of metropolitan wealth and fashion. What though they slept in layers on the sanded floors of Troutman's and Shoemaker's bar rooms, and learned to regard it as a favor that they were allowed the accommodation of a roof by paying roundly for it, a few months would pass, and then Aladdin, with the Genius of the Lamp, could not raise a palace or a banquet with more speed than they ! One branch of the adventurers betook themselves to land speculations, and 106 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. another to the slower process of mining. With the first, mountains, rocks, and valleys changed hands with astonishing rapidity. That which was worth only hundreds in the morning, sold for thousands in the evening, and would com- mand tens of thousands by sunrise, in paper money of that description known among the facetious as slow notes. Days and nights were consumed in surveys and chaffering. There was not a man who did not speak like a Croesus, even your ragged rascal could talk of his hundreds of thousands. The tracts of land, in passing through so many hands, became subdivided, and that brought on another act in the drama of speculation : the manufacture of towns, and the selling of town lots. Every speculator had his town laid out, and many of them had scores of towns. They were, to be sure, located in the pathless forests; but the future Broadways and Pall Malls were marked upon the trees ; and it was anticipated that the time was not far distant when the deers, bears and wild-cats would be obliged to give place, and take the gutter side of the belles and beauxs of the new cities. How beautifully the towns yet unborn looked upon paper ! the embryo squares, flaunting in pink and yellow, like a tulip show at Amsterdam ; and the broad streets intersecting each other at right angles, in imitation of the common parent, Philadelphia. The skill of the artist was exerted to render them attractive ; and the more German text, and the more pink and yellow, the more valuable became the town ! The value of a lot, bedaubed with vermillion, was incalculable, and even a sky parlor loca- tion, one edge of which rested upon the side of a perpendicular mountain, the lot running back into the air a hundred feet or so from the level of the earth, by the aid of the paint box, was no despicable bargain : and the corners of Chesnut and Chatham streets, in the town of Caledonia, situated in the centre of an almost impervious laurel swamp, brought a high price in market, for it was illustrated by a patch of yellow ochre ! The bar-rooms were hung round with these brilliant fancy sketches ; every man had a roll of incheate towns in the side-pocket of his fustian jacket. The most populous country in the world is not so thickly studded with settlements as the coal region was to be; but they remain, unluckily, in statu quo anti helium. At some points a few buildings were erected to give an appearance of realizing promises. There was one town with a fine name, which had a great barn of a frame hotel. The building was let for nothing ; but after a trial of a few weeks, customers were so scarce at the Ped Cow, that the tenant swore roundly he must have it on better terms, or he would give up the lease. The other branch of our adventurers lent their attention to mining ; and they could show you, by the aid of a pencil and piece of paper, the manner in which they must make fortunes, one and all, in a given space of time — expenses, so much; transportation, so much; will sell for so much; leaving a clear profit of 000,00 ! There was no mistake about the matter. To it they went, boring the mountains, swamping their money and themselves. The hills swarmed with them; they clustered like bees about a hive ; but not a hope was realized. Cal- SPECULATIONS IN LAND. 107 dilations, like towns, are one thing on paper, and quite another when brought to the test. j At last the members of the expedition began to look haggard and careworn. The justices did a fine business ; and Natty M., Blue Breeches, Pewter-Legs, and other worthies of the catchpole profession, toiled at their vocation with ceaseless activity. When the game could not be run down at view, it was taken by ambuscade. Several bold navigators discovered that the county had accom- modations at Orwigsburg, (at that time the seat of justice, now located at Potts- ville,) for gentlemen in trouble. Capiases, securities, and bail-pieces became as In miliar as your garter. The play was over, and the farce of " The Devil to Pay" was the after-piece. There was but one step from the sublime to the ridiculous, and Pottsville saw it taken ! Gay gallants, who had but a few months before rolled up the turnpike, swell- ing with hope, and flushed with expectation, now betook themselves, in the gray of the morn, and then the haze of the evening, with bundle on back — the ward- robe of the Honorable Dick Dowles tied up in a little blue and white pocket handkerchief— to the tow-path, making, in court phrase, "mortal escapes;" and, in the end, a general rush was effected — the army was disbanded — suavi qui pent?" The coal region, twenty-five years ago, stood in a position equally as tempting to the people of the surrounding States, and especially those of our own, as California recently did, and still does. It was a new and unexplored region, and, in the midst of the scenes which characterized it, every one thought to play a part, and receive the smiles of fortune. Many, of course, were disappointed: — hut the more practical were enahled to sustain themselves, and with the aid of the improvements made in the moments of excitement and specula- tion, finally established themselves permanently in the successful pursuit of their business. Pottsville is much frequented in the summer by strangers and travellers, but principally by those who, having investments in the improvements connected with the coal trade, or in the land itself, combine business with the pleasures of travel. The place, at this season, is therefore generally pretty well filled, and adds somewhat to its interest — though there is never a lack of gaiety and spirit in the society of the town. Indeed, from what we know of it, we should pronounce it inferior, in no essential, to that of any other community in the Union — characterized, as it is, by a high tone, governed by sound intelligence and fine social feelings. The rides in the vicinity are magnificent — for while the roads are always in the midst of the wildest and most picturesque mountain 108 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. scenery, they are also enlivened with the varied scenes of industry and activity peculiar to the region— little mining villages, colliery works, saw-mills, extensive forests, rocky promontories — now looking down from the tops of mountains, then from the narrow deeply-shaded valleys looking up; these, in continual and varied succession, are among the scenes to he enjoyed in a drive, in any direction, in the vicinity of Pottsville. The roads are generally very good ; indeed, in many places they are unsurpassed. Nor are they, as might be sup- posed, very hilly ; but winding around the mountains, they attain the summit without any steep ascents, and the trees and wild bushes always afford a shade, which, while it protects the road from the sun, and prevents the accumulation of dust, only renders it more inviting for the traveller. There are, as we have already intimated, a variety of objects in the vicinity, which the stranger might visit with satisfaction. Amongst others of similar character, is Swatara Falls, situate about nine miles from Pottsville, over a beautiful summer-road. The falls, lying about a mile from the carriage-way, are accessible over a very stony path through the bushes ; but the exercise required to approach them will be amply compensated by the view afforded. The outlines are sketched in the engraving from the recollection of the writer, who visited them some four years since, and it is very probable the picture is deficient in some of the minor points. It represents the stream with a full flow of water, which, however, is not peculiar to it during the dry weather of the summer. A wilder scene than is here pre- sented we have never found, nor a cooler spot during the heat of the summer, and after the fatigue of reaching it from the road. It is often selected, with good taste we think, as the scene of Pic JS"ic parties, with which we have associated it in the engraving. Inasmuch as the general character of the country will be frequently referred to in our article on the coal formation, it would be a useless repetition to extend our remarks at this place. We will, therefore, continue the journey, and meet our old friend (who has thought well enough of our good intentions to entertain him thus far,) at Tamaqua. We take the cars near Pottsville to Tuscarora, via the Schuylkill valley railroad, and thence by stage to Tamaqua. The country, as we pass along, is grand — wild — sublime, and so forth, and all that ; at Tamaqua the gorge in the mountain, through which the wild little Schuylkill, like a lost child, runs on to meet her anxious maternal 'jfi^m&w TAMAQUA. Ill parent at Port Clinton — is truly magnificent. Sharp mountain rises to a lofty height in the rear of the town, and its summit affords a splendid view of the whole interior coal basin, which is here remark- ably rich in its development. There are several characteristic moun- tain scenes along the railroad, between here and Port Clinton — did you observe them ? Ah, it is well ; it saves us the trouble of a description. Tamaqua is beautifully situated, and is a thriving and important place. The little Schuylkill coal and railroad company own nearly all the adjacent coal lands, embracing upwards of five thousand acres, and it is through their auspices that the town has grown into its present prosperous condition. It is of comparatively recent origin, like all the towns and villages of the coal region ; but its progress in population and business has been much more rapid, at the same time that it has been substantial and durable. During the depression of business which has characterized most of the mining districts, for the last few years, Tamaqua maintained a degree of comparative pros- perity ; and such is its peculiar position amongst the most important elements of industrial progress, that the place, at no distant day, must become one of great commercial interest. Tamaqua lies on the railroad route connecting Philadelphia with Lake Erie ; and from the importance of the road, and the natural advantages favoring its con- struction, no doubt can be entertained of its ultimate prosecution. A large portion of the route, in fact, is already finished — a still larger portion graded, and but a comparatively short distance yet to be graded and equipped, to complete the whole, which would thus furnish a shorter route, from Philadelphia to Lake Erie, than is af- forded from New York to Dunkirk, via the Erie railroad. Six miles from Tamaqua is Summit Hill, a small mining village, the spot where anthracite coal was originally discovered, and the site of the great open quarry of the Lehigh coal and Navigation Company. This quarry has been abandoned in favor of the usual process of mining by drifts. The coal strata, on arriving at this point, converge towards each other, and appear to have been overtilted, thus forming an almost solid area of coal of great thickness. Lying near the sur- face, it was for many years mined in open quarry. A railroad ex- tends from this place to Mauch Chunk, over which the coal mined in the vicinity is carried. The road is nine miles in length, and has a gradual descent from the summit of the mountain to Mauch Chunk, 112 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. where the coal is transferred to canal-boats. The entire descent is, we believe, over six hundred feet. The cars thus descend by their own weight, under the charge of a conductor ; and the passage down affords one of the most unique and exciting trips which the imagi- nation could picture. The scenery — oh ! the wild, the bold, the terrible mountain scenery as you pass along — swifter than the winged messengers of the air ! You look around and below with a feeling half fear and half inward unearthly satisfaction ! Heavens ! could anything be more pleasing — more delightful ; and then, winding round a curvature, where the cars miglit run off the track, and pre- cipitate their enthusiastic and excited contents several hundred feet into the little agricultural valley below — you tremble and shrug, and wonder if anything could be more dangerous! A-ha! Look at those lazy old conglomerates there, reposing in awful cliffs and massive columns on the mountain's side ; and here, let us " calmly" survey the harvests fields, the fresh-mown hay, the little white cottages looking like children's playthings, scattered over the valley " away down below." How beautiful, in this tremendous ocean of untamed and unchiseled mountains, the little narrow patches of the farmer appear ! They look like long pieces of richly figured carpet, while the stately pines give them a border of the darkest and softest green. Rising one after the other, like an army of soldiers, to the mountain top, their tall spear-shaped plumes pierce the region of clouds, while beneath they bury their quivering shadows in the solemn depths of solitude ; for The sound of the chureh-going bell These valleys and rocks ne'er heard, — Ne'er sighed at the sound of a knell, Or smiled when a Sabbath appeared. At the terminus of the railroad flows the Lehigh river, a stream of no great volume, except in times of long continued rain. At such seasons the banks are overflowed, and some of the villages and property on its banks occasionally suffer material injury. The banks are deep and much worn in consequence of the velocity of the stream, and the large amount of debris collected in the mountains are carried down in the current. The Lehigh empties into the Delaware river at Easton, a distance of thirty-six miles from Mauch Chunk. It is made MATJCH CHUNK. 115 navigable to Easton, and also to White Haven, twenty-sis miles above, for coal boats of one hundred tons. Beyond White Haven to Stod- dartsville, the river has been improved for descending lumber, -which forms a large trade on this river, besides that of coal. The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, under whose auspices these stupen- dous improvements were made, own upwards of ten thousand acres of the coal land embraced in this region, while their works afford an outlet for the adjacent coal districts of Beaver Meadow, Spring Moun- tain, Hazleton, Buck Mountain, White Haven, etc. Projects for the navigation of the Lehigh were set on foot as early as 1792 ; but it was only after the discovery of coal, and when its importance began to be righly appreciated, that its entire completion was effected. A vast amount of capital has been sunk unnecessarily, which has in- volved the present company to a serious extent ; but the growing im- portance of its trade must and will ultimately place the works in a paying condition. To effect the transfer of coal from the cars to the canal boats, ex- tensive steam and other works are employed. In the first place, there is an inclined plane, running from the railroad, (which terminates at a point about one hundred and fifty feet above the level of the river), to the banks of the canal-basin, where tressel-works are erected, pro- jecting over the river. Over this plane the loaded cars descend. The rapidity of their descent is in a measure checked by the weight of the empty cars ascending, which, being fastened at the other end of the rope, and moving on a parallel railway on the same plane, necessarily mount as rapidly as the loaded cars descend. But the partial coun- terpoise is still insufficient to moderate properly the speed of the de- scending cars. This object is effectually gained by an iron band which clasps the drum, (to which the rope is attached,) and which, compressed by a lever, controls its motion. Accidents have rarely oc- curred in this descent, but the cars have sometimes deviated or broken loose. They are now guarded against by a very simple, yet ingenious contrivance. The railway is double until the most rapid part of the descent is passed, when both ways curve and unite into one. Should a car break loose, therefore, its momentum will be so great as to pre- vent its following the curve, and as soon as it reaches the spot, it is thrown off the track, overturned, and lodged on a clay bank formed for this purpose below. Farther down, a bulwark is constructed, over-arching the railway, to intercept the loose coal as it flies from the 116 OFP-HAND SKETCHES. cars. When the car arrives at the foot of the inclined plane, it pitchei into a downward curve in the railway, and a projecting bar, which secures the lower end of the car, and which, for this purpose, is hung in a horizontal axis, knocks it open, and the coal slides down a steep funnel or shute, into the canal boat, which, receding from the shore by the impulse thus given it, occasions the coal to spread evenly over its bottom. In addition to this inclined plane, however, there are shutes con- necting directly with the railroad and the banks of the canal. These shutes are probably upwards of two hundred feet in length, lined with an iron flooring. The coal is thrown in from the car above, and slides down to the boats in the canal, thus saving the trouble and ex- pense of hoisting the cars up and down. These works are all indicated in the engraving annexed. After the cars are unloaded, they are returned to the summit, in precisely the same manner as they came down — that is, by gravita- tion. To effect this, two inclined planes are used, one of which, on the top of Mount Pisgah, is indicated in the engraving. A stationary steam-engine is placed at the head of each plane, by means of which the empty cars are drawn up. After reaching the top of Mount Pisgah, they descend by gravitation a distance of six miles, when the other plane is reached. Raised over this, they descend again, in like manner, until they get their supplies of coal, when they are returned on the road already described. An imaginary railway circle is thus described, over which the cars proceed with the swiftness, almost, of lightning, without any motive-power whatever. Mount Pisgah plane is twenty-two hundred and fifty feet in length, overcoming a perpendicular height of nearly seven hundred feet. This is probably the greatest elevation overcome by any other single inclined plane in the world. Previous to the completion of this new road, the empty cars were drawn back by mules, that always accompanied the loaded trains in their descent, having had cars expressly appropriated to their ac- commodation. Upwards of six hundred mules were thus employed, occasioning, as may well be supposed, a heavy item of expense, includ- ing that necessary for the support of their drivers. It is, in our opin- ion, a serious obstacle to the success of this company, that so much machinery, and that of an expensive and complicated character, has to be maintained to carry on their business. Matjch Chunk is a remarkable village, and no engraving could hope THE LEHIGH. 119 to portray its peculiar features— nor, indeed, could any considerable portion of it, small as it is, be exhibited in a single view, since the town creeps in amongst the narrow valleys of the numerous moun- tains, in which it is situated, for nestling places. It is a bird's-nest of a place — hemmed in by high and steep mountains on all sides — some gracefully curving around it, while others terminate abruptly in its midst, and seemingly frown down upon it. The houses, which are generally very neat and creditable structures, are built on the sides of the mountains — in some instances the fronts presenting three and four stories, the rear one. There are two principal hotels, which are much frequented during the summer months by travellers and tourists, but more especially by enterprizing capitalists and manufacturers interested in the vast resources of the country, and who, being usually accompanied by their wives and daughters, make their visit one of business as well as pleasure — mingling profit with the pursuit of nov- elty and entertainment — wild scenery, wholesome air, and so forth. We have now — oh, reader ! — we have now finished Part First of this, our " Travels !" PAUT II. #{)£ iiitljntrib Cnnl fn mitt inn. " I will teach you to pierce the bowels of the earth, and bring out from the caverns of mountains metals which will give strength to our hands, and subject all nature to our use and pleasure." — Br. Johnson. Coal is indisputably a vegetable production, and occupies a position low down, among the earliest deposits of the primeval earth. For a long time it was hard to recognize its vegetable origin, because the fact opened the door to some of the grandest and most wonderful phenomena ever grasped by philosophy — originating theories and hypotheses, as it did, which conflicted not only with every previous opinion, but seemingly struck a heavy blow at the truths of revealed law. Instead of the earth being but a few thousand years old, the coal deposits prove it to be of great and incalculable antiquity — numbering its years not by centuries, but rather by thousands and millions far anterior to the flood. Nor is its wonderful antiquity inconsistent, as was at first supposed, with the doctrines of divine revelation.* Science and Religion are identical in their true mission, * Prof. Silliman, during a recent course of lectures on Geology, before the Smithsonian Institute at "Washington, stated, decidedly, that there is no conflict between geology and the scripture history. The case is widely different from that of astronomy, more than two hundred years ago, which was condemned as heretical, because the scriptures described the appearances of the heavens only, which were all that in general mankind could be acquainted with. But in the case of geology, there is not even a literal discrepancy. On the contrary, all the geological formations correspond in the order of time, and, as far as they are described in the scriptures, with the nature of the deposits, ( 120 ) ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 121 and cannot fail to harmonize when properly understood. The beneficent doctrines of the great Mediator were promulgated at a period when the world was unprepared either for the startling truths or the prac- tical benefits of science — hence it was left for the Bible to gradually especially in the succession of created beings endowed with life, and man iii both systems crowns the whole. The only change required is extension of - time, so as to afford enough to allow the events to happen by natural laws, established by the Creator, and expressive of his will, which is thus distinctly recorded in the earth itself. " The beginning" is not limited in time, and may extend as far back as the case may require ; thus providing for all the early formations. The periods called days are not necessarily such as we now denote by that word. There could be no regulation and division of time, as we now have it, until the sun was set to rule the day. Morning and evening may be, before that time, figurative expressions, denoting merely beginning and ending, as we say the morning and evening of life. The word day is used, in this short narra- tive, in all the senses in which it is ever employed in language, and signifi- cantly in the recapitulation or summary ; in the beginning of the second chap- ter, day is used for the whole period of the creation, and in the same sense in various other parts of the scriptures. The periods required for all the amazing series of events recorded i.n the earth are necessarily long ; and if time was measured by natural days in the fifth and sixth periods, during the creation and sepulture of innumerable races of marine and terrestrial animals, there must hare been a repetition of very many of those days to make out a long epoch, which r.-iight as well be regarded at once as a period of sufficient length for the work. The Sabbath stands by itself, after the work is finished, a moral institution, having no necessary connection with the preceding physical events. By it man is every week reminded of his Maker and his destination, and although neither morning nor evening are in the Genesis named in connection with the Sabbath, it has no doubt always been of the same length as now, and does not belong to the geological epochs. If this view is not acceptable, it is still indispensable, that in some way the time should be found, and no person fully acquainted with the structure of the earth can doubt that the time was very long, and no other person can be ad- mitted as qualified to judge in the case. There is no reason to believe that man has been in the world more than six thousand years and the antiquity of the planet refers to ages before man was created. The allusion in the command- ments, and in other parts of the scriptures, to the six days would of course be made in conformity with the language adopted in the narrative, which, being for the mass of mankind, was necessarily a popular history, although of divine origin ; and the historian adopted a division of time that was in general use, 11 Q 122 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. prepare and guide fallen man to a higher and nobler destiny, rather than to confound and corrupt him with a premature and unnatural perception of the mysteries of the universe, and the great social and physical laws that impel him onward. This is the mission of the although as to half the time, at least, it was inconsistent with astronomical laws. Extension of the time to such a length as to cover the events by the operation of physical laws removes every difficulty, interferes with no doctrine of religion, and prepares us to exclaim with' our divine poets — These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good : Almighty ! thine this universal frame, Thus wondrous fair : Thyself how wondrous, then, Unspeakable, who sits above the heavens, To us invisible, or dimly seen in these thy lower works. Yet these declare thy goodness beyond thought, And power divine. — Milton. Thou giVst its lustre to an insect's wing, And wheel'st thy throne upon the rolling worlds. From Thee is all that cheers the life of man, His high endeavour and his glad success — His power to suffer and his will to serve ; But oh ! Thou bounteous Giver of all good, Thou art of all thy gifts thyself the crown. Give what thou canst ; without Thee we are poor— And with Thee rich, take what thou Wilt away. — Cowper. Bayard Taylor who, at the last advices received from him, was in Egypt, gives the following in connection with his visit to the great temple of Abou- Simbel. " The sculptures on the walls of the grand hall are, after those of Medeenet Abou, and on the exterior wall of Karnak, the most interesting I have seen in Egypt. On the end wall, on either side of the entrance, is a colos- sal bas-relief, representing Remeses slaying a group of captive kings, whom he holds by the hair of their heads. There are ten or twelve in each group, and the features, though they are not coloured, exhibit the same distinction of race as I had previously remarked in Belzoni's tomb, at Thebes. There is the Negro, the Persian, the Jew, and one other form of countenance which I could not make out — all imploring with uplifted hands the mercy of the conqueror. On the southern wall, the distinction between the Negro and the Egyptian is made still more obvious by the coloring of the figures. In fact, I see no reason what- ever to doubt that the peculiar sharaeteristi.es of the different races of men were as strongly marked in the days of Remeses as at present. This is an interesting fact in discussing the question of the unity of origin of the races. I ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 123 Bible, and wherever its pages have been freely unfolded, there has science followed, and proclaimed her unyielding laws. Keferring the primary origin of the earth itself to the nebular theory of Herschell, it is supposed to be filled with everlasting fire — the re- sult, probably, of its internal chemical organization, or the original incandescence of the planet. However this may be, the existence of universal heat within it, is amply demonstrated by the variation of the temperature of the atmosphere as we proceed downwards — a descent of a few thousand feet bringing us into a region entirely too warm to sustain life. It is further demonstrated by volcanic erup- tions, which have through all time, and at various places, vomited out streams of burning lava and scorige, overflowing vast regions of coun- try, as well as filling up the bottoms of the sea ; while in more recent times they have buried entire cities — men, women, and children; servant and master ; resident and stranger ; the princely palace — the capitol — the column, and the arch — all buried in one common grave ! To such eruptions, as the inevitable consequence of inextinguishable fire, should also be added the phenomenon of earthquakes, which are no less disastrous and terrible in their effects, and no less frequent in their visits. These elements of destruction have probably been awak- ened at irregular periods, and when fully aroused, have operated generally throughout the globe, rather than in isolated districts ; hence gradually arose the vast mountain chains that now traverse the face of the globe, from pole to pole, throwing back, in their ascent, the waters of the sea, and dividing them by impenetrable barriers. Thus was slowly produced a material refrigeration of the climate — for it must be understood that, previous to these epochs, the climate of the earth must have been universal, or nearly so, and that, at least, it was much warmer than it now is, even in the torrid zone. This is evident from the fact that coal is distributed in all quarters of the globe — in cold as well as in warm regions. have as yet, though deeply interested in the subject, not looked into it suffi- ciently to take either side ; but, admitting the different races of men to have had originally one origin, the date of the first appearance of Man on the earth, must have been nearer fifty thousand than five thousand years ago. If climate, customs, and the like, have been the only agents in producing that variety of race, which we find so strongly marked nearly four thousand years ago, surely those agents must have been at work for a vastly longer period than that usually accepted as the age of Man. We are older than we know; but our beginning, like our end, is darkness and mystery. 124 OIF-HAND SKETCHES. Whatever may have been the local characteristics of the primeval earth, it is certain that the climate was much warmer, and much more humid than it now is, or has been in modern times. The character of the vegetation abundantly establishes this. Of the large number of plants comprising the coal-bearing period, there are few which bear any analogy to existing species, and these are the exclusive pro- ductions of the torrid zone. Fossil Botany, it is true, is a compara- tively recent science — yet enough has been elicited through its aid to afford a good idea of the vegetation of the ancient earth. The vege- tation of the coal formation, according to Dr. Lindley, consisted of ferns in vast abundance ; of large coniferous trees, of species resemb- ling lycopodiacece, but of most gigantic dimensions ; of vast quantities of a tribe apparently arialagous to cactece or ewpTiorbiacece, but per- haps not identical with them ; of palms and other monocotyledons ; and, finally, of numerous plants, the exact nature of which is doubt- ful. Of the entire number of species detected in this formation, two- thirds are ferns. The fossils are divided by Botanists into the follow- ing genera, determined by the character of their fronds ; pachypteris, sphenopteris, cyclopteris, glossopteris, neuropteris, odontopteris, anom- opteris, tseaniopteris, pecopteris,louchopteris,clathropteris, schizopteris, otopteris, caulopteris and sigillaria, etc., the two latter occurring only as stems, and the last being considered by many as a dicotyledonous plant. Of these, figure 1 exhibits a specimen of the neuropteris, or FIG. 1. — NEUROPTERIS. nerve fern, which are plentifully distributed in the coal. Figure 2 is a specimen of the odontopteris, or tooth-fern, not so numerous as the former, but still characteristic of this formation. The next, Anom- opteris, are seldom met with, but nevertheless flourished in this era. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION 125 FIG. 2. ODONTOPTERIS, FIG. 3. — ANOMOPTERIS. The Pecopteris, figure 4, is by far the most numerous of all varieties of the fern, having upwards of sixty different species in the coal. The common brake, or fern, exhibits a type of the family of which the figure will serve as a specimen ; but the aborescent ferns, which now grow only in the vicinity of the equator, present the closest analogy to those of the carboniferous period, which were lofty trees, far surpassing in height and mag- nificence, even their tropical congeners of the present day. From their number and variety, they afford some of the most interesting fossil remains which the vegetable kingdom has produced. Their leaves are generally elegant, and display great variety of form and diversity of venation ; from these characters the generic and specific distinctions of the family are ob- tained. They are often preserved in great perfection, and even the organs of fructification are occasionally observable at the back of the leaf. Several fine specimens of the fern may be seen at the Pennsyl- vania Hall, in Pottsville, while nearly every coal ope- rator has more or less of various kinds of vegetable fossil, which they exhibit for the gratification of friends. Martin Weaver, Esq., has shown us se- veral of the finest impressions we have yet seen, and Flg- 4 '~~ Pec °P teris - he had, at one time, if he has not now, a considerable collection. 11* 126 OFT-HAND SKETCHES. Fig. 5 exhibits a variety of fruit, of the family of Chara, and comprised in the same class as the foregoing. The fruit is oval, and consists of five valves, twisted spirally, with a small opening at each extremity. The figure on the left, marked 1, exhibits the nut within FIG. 5. — CHAKA. the pericarp ; 2 shows the pericarp ; and 3 a portion of the spiral valve, magnified, while 4 and 5 are the natural size of 1 and 2, mag- nified in the engraving. Of the family of the club-moss or lycopodia- cecB, there are numerous specimens, the most common of which are the lycopadites, lepidodendron, lepidostrobus, and stigmaria, a speci- men of which we append — fig. 6. The stem of the Stigmaria was FIG. 6. — STIGMAEIA. originally succulent, marked externally with roundish tubercles, sur- rounded by a groove, and arranged in a direction more or less spiral — having a distinct axis, communicating with the tubercles by woody processes. Fig. 7 exhibits a specimen of the Pterophyllum, or wing- leaf, of the family of Cycadece, seldom met with in the coal, and of which the leaves only are known. Fig. 8, however, of the same family, called Aster ophyllites, is one of the most numerous dicotyle- ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 127 FIG. 7. — PTEKOPHTLLTJM. FIG. 8. — ASTEBAPHYLLITES. donous plants found in the coal, but unlike the other, the stems only are known. There is a variety of others which it is probably un- necessary to specify — the examples already afforded being, we think, quite sufficient to convey an idea of the several families comprising the coal vegetation. Of the numerous families composing the class of monocotyledonous plants, there are comparatively few to be found in the coal formation. The class of dicotyledonous, however, pre- sents a greater variety and number, most of which belong to the family FIG. 9. — SIGILLARIA. of Sigillaria, of which fig. 9 affords a specimen. The Sigillaria is one of the most important plants of the coal, and probably furnished a very large amount of its vegetable matter. The stem is conical, and 128 OFT-HAND SKETCHES, deeply furrowed, with scars between the furrows in rows, but not arranged in a distinctly spiral manner. There are some forty species in the coal formation. The most common of the coal-plants may be classified as follows : first, ferns and Sigillaria. Second, lepidodendron, a doubtful genus, variously associated by botanists. Thirdly, calamites. Fourthly, coniferous plants ; and fifthly, stigmaria, which is probably an ex- tinct family. To ascertain more satisfactorily the nature and cir- c*mstances attending the growth of the vegetable matter, it is neces- sary to institute some further inquiries. Thus, by comparisons with existing species, and the elements constituting their growth, we obtain considerable light on the subject, and are able to form conclusions which could not otherwise be safely arrived at. We shall append a few illustrations. The Sigillaria, so numerous in the coal, have gen- erally been classed as monocotyledonous plants ; but late observers contend that they properly belong to the dicotyledonous division. The irregular and longitudinal furrows of the surface of the stems — their swelling out at the base, angle of dip or downward direction of the roots, are characters constantly observable in the dicotyledon- ous, but never in monocotyledonous plants. Besides, these trees have a separable bark ; and slices of it, prepared for microscopic investiga- tion, have exhibited traces of medullary rays, which are universally recognized as proofs of dicotyledonous structure. While they are FIG. 10. — CATJLOPTERIS FIG. 11. — EXISTING TREE-FERN. thus regarded as dicotyledonous, or exogenous and compact trees, Dr. Lindlev has divided from them another genus, termed caidopteris. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION 129 which he considers true stems of tree-ferns. These are hollow, but the markings which they exhibit present so close a resemblance to existing tree-ferns as to leave no doubt of their identity with those plants. They are, however, comparatively rare in the coal ; while of the true Sigillaria, over forty species have been discovered. We ap- pend a figure of the fossil stem, caulopteris, 10, and a figure of an existing tree-fern, 11, in juxtaposition for comparison. The family of Lepidodendra have, by some writers, been supposed to belong to that of the club-mosses ; while the larger species were regarded as forming a transition to the coniferous plants. The living species of their supposed analogues, fig. 12, abound in tropical cli- mates ; — they generally creep on the ground, some grow erect, but none exceed three feet in height ; whereas, fossil specimens have been found over thirty feet high, while fragments have been discovered CLUB-MOSS. FIG. 13. — LEPIDODENDRA. indicating a much larger size, figs. 13 and 14. Figure 15 exhibits a specimen of a numerous family, called Crassula Tetragona, probably allied to the above species, which are found at the Cape of Good Hope. They occur in the driest situations, where not a blade of grass nor a particle of moss can grow, on naked rocks, old walls, or hot sandy plains, alternately exposed to the heaviest dews of night, and the most intense rays of the noon-day sun. Soil is to them a something to keep them stationary, rather than a source of nutriment, R 130 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. LEPIDODIA. FIG. 15. — CHASSULA TETRAGOXA. which, in these plants, is conveyed in myriads of small cuticular pores, to the cellular tissue which lies beneath them. The Calamites are not analogous to any existing species, as already noted, though they resemble some plants in structure, but differ widely in their proportions — the fossil indicating large trees, while the existing species which they resemble are but two or three feet high, and of corresponding diameter. Of the coniferje of the coal, it has been observed that they bear a strong resemblance to existing^?i»e,? — slices of the wood, when examined by the microscope, showing that the ducts or glands peculiar to this family of trees, are arranged in a similar manner, that is, alternately in double and triple rows, fig. 16. The stigmaria is generally sup- posed to have been a large succulent water-plant — the stem, in its compressed fossil state, varying from two to six inches in diameter, and has numerous processes, which proceed vertically, horizontally FIG. 16. — CONIFERS. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 131 and obliquely, and traverse the beds in every direction. These pro- cesses have been traced to a distance of eight or ten feet from the stem, and had a horizontal range of twenty feet. From the extra- ordinary number of these plants, it is concluded that they have furnished the material for the great bulk of our coal beds. From the general character of the vegetation, and the absence of the great mountain ranges which now conspicuously mark the earth's surface, it is probable that water covered a far greater area of country than it subsequently did, while, at the same time, its mineral quali- ties must have been essentially different from what they are now. PIG. 17. — THE COAL VEGETATION- The land, lying low and in broad marshes, must have resembled, in some respects, our great western prairies, so well known for their rank vegetation, which, added to the peculiar warmth and humidity of the climate, produced plants of extraordinary proportions — far exceeding our loftiest forest trees. The vegetable matter growing thus spontaneously under active stimulants, formed immense wild coverings, by which it was peculiarly adapted to receive the ascend- ing charges of the elements constituting its growth. Fig. 17 exhibits an ideal view of the coal vegetation. 132 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. Regarding the manner of deposit, much difference of opinior. exists among Geologists. For a long time an opinion prevailed (and is still entertained by some), that the vegetable matter was removed from the place of its growth by drift, and deposited in the bottom of the sea, or the estuaries of lakes and rivers, where it underwent a process of fermentation and pressure from the superimposed debris that accumulated upon it, and thus gradually changed into the state of coal. It is now, however, rendered probable that it grew on the identical beds in which we find it, and the supposition is supported from the fact, amongst others, that fossil trees have been found in the coal formation in an erect position, with portions of their trunks charred, and passing into the state of coal, which is, of course, incon- sistent with the theory of their removal by drift. Indeed, when we consider the enormous amount of vegetable mat- ter entering into, and necessary to have produced even the smallest seam of coal, it is hard to conceive how it could have drifted from the place of growth — especially, too, as the floating mass would have been exposed to the liability of meeting and intermixing with various other substances, tending to impair the purity of the coal ; whereas no such evidence is afforded. It is obvious, therefore, that the coal grew on the spots where it is now deposited, and the only remaining point to establish this view, is to account for the deposition of the in- termediate strata. This, however, is not an easy task — for they com- prise marine deposits of every description, in addition to those of sand, clay, and mud, which have produced the extensive sandstone rock that lies around the seams of coal. The only way it can be ac- counted for, is to suppose the submergence of the coal beds, time after time, and the deposition of the sea-shells and crustacese, that are now found over them, combined with the conglomerate detritris borne into the estuaries of lakes and rivers — after which the waters probably receded, and suffered another supply of vegetable matter to accumulate. That something like this process is at least probable, is sufficiently evident from the alternation of marine deposits and other matter with the coal beds, and their position high up upon the sum- mits of mountains, hundreds of miles from the present flow of the sea. How else could they have been deposited there, in regular order and succession ? — though it is nevertheless probable that extra- ordinary floods, internal convulsious and outbreaks in the earth's crust, as well as the general changes of land into sea, and sea intu ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 133 land, at that period, (and even now constantly going on,) contributed much as co-operative agents. "We append a single figure, 18, showing the horizontal position of strata, which will also serve to illustrate the alternation of coal veins with other deposits in the same basins. FIGURE 18. The vegetable material, therefore, having been thus secured, a chemical process subsequently ensued, as before stated, by which the mass was turned into coal. The fermentation produced by the pres- sure of the overlaying strata, and the impossibility of the immediate escape of its gaseous elements, heated it sufficiently to produce a body of pitchy or bituminous matter, and the coal is consequently bitumi- nous, or only partially so, in proportion as these gases were subse- quently let out by the cracks, and fissures, and disruptions, going on in the surrounding strata. For we find that when the strata are undisturbed, bituminous or fat coals predominate ; whereas, where the strata are inverted, and torn and disruptured, anthracite, or coals which have lost the greater portion of this pitchy matter, prevail. Thus, after long-continued and constantly increasing pressure, the vegetable matter becomes one compact body of coal ; and now, after the lapse of countless centuries, during which the process of minerali- zation has still continued, we find it embracing every shade and variety of quality, according to the original ingredients constituting the growth, age, and local circ*mstances governing its deposition. In connection with this branch of the subject, we present the following ex- tracts from the opinions of Sir Charles Lyell, of England, who visited this region in 1841. In reference to the origin of coal, whatever dispute there may have been on the subject, he thinks was settled when a portion of the New Cas- tle coal, some years ago, was submitted to a microscopic examination. After cutting off a slice so thin that it should transmit light, it was found that many parts of the pure and solid coal, in which geologists had no suspicion that they should be able to deduct any vegetable structures, not only were the annular rings of the growth of several kinds of trees beautifully distinct, but even the medullary rays, and what is still more remarkable, in some eases, even the 12 134 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. spiral vessels could be discovered. But besides these proofs, from observing a vegetable structure in the coal itself, there has been found in the shales accom- panying it, fern leaves and branches, as well as other plants, and when we find the trunks of trees and bark converted into this same kind of coal as we find in the great solid beds, no one will dispute the strong evidence in favor of the vegetable origin of this coal. If we find a circumference of bark surround- ing a cylindrical mass of sand, we know that it has been a hollow tree filled up with sand, nor can there be any doubt that the coal is formed of vegetable matter. No less than three hundred species of plants have been well deter- mined by botanists; some of whom have devoted a great part of their lives to this study. From this it is to be inferred that the carboniferous formation of Europe and America is made up of comparatively recent plants. He thus alludes to three or four of the most peculiar facts which lead to this conclusion. In the first place, the boughs and leaves of ferns are the most frequently and strikingly met in America as well as Europe. So perfectly have they been pre- served that there can be no doubt that they are really ferns; and in some cases even their infloresence has been preserved at the back of the leaves. "Where we have not the flowers and prints remaining we have found it possible to dis- tinguish the different species of fossil and ancient ferns by attending to the veining of the leaves. At least one hundred species are determined in this way. The most numerous of those vegetable veinings are those which have been called Sigillaria or tree ferns. Their stems are found to be fluted verti- cally, and in the flutings are little stars, as it were, each of which indicates the place where the leaf was attached; and it is evident, as M. Brongniart has shown, that although the bark of these trees is so well marked that forty-two species have been described, yet there is never found any leaf attached; while we have in the same beds leaves in abundance which have no trunks. The natural inference is, that they must have belonged to the aboresoent ferns ; as, for instance, the section Gaulojptoris is admitted by all to have belonged to this species. The fact is also important because the tree-ferns, and especially the Caxiloptoris. are now known to be exclusively the inhabitants of a warm and humid climate — much more hot and moist than in those parts of the globe where coal now abounds. For we find coal, not only in England and Nova Scotia, but as far north as Melville's Island and Baffin's Bay, in a climate where the growth of such fern plants is dwarfish and stinted. It is evident that when these vegetables existed there must have been a warmer, and probably a more equable climate than is now found even in warmer latitudes. The climate in Northern latitudes was then much warmer and more moist than it is now in any part of the globe. The same thing is made evident by a comparison of their fossil Sigillaria with those which now attain their greatest size in the islands of the Pacific. He had found several plants, as the Astero- pTiyllites, in the Apalachian Chain, and which are also found in Nova Scotia and Europe, which cannot certainly be referred to any living families. These ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 135 all however, bespeak a terrestrial vegetation, though occasionally found mixed with marine shells and corals. Another class of fossils common in coal shales is the L epidodendra, somewhat allied in form to the modern Licopodiuma, or white mosses. Though the' mosses of the present day are never more than shrubs, even in the warmest regions, yet, at the carboniferous period they attained an enormous development, being forty, fifty, or even seventy feet high. There have been two theories to explain how these plants could have been tarried into the sea, estuaries, or lakes, and drawn beneath the water and ac- cumulated in the strata, so as to form coal. One of them asserts that the plants must have been drifted and buried in the water, since we find them inter- collated between different strata of shales; just as plants lie between the leaves of a botanist's herbarium, and are pressed together, so have these ferns been found flattened between the seams of shale. They have been carried from the place where they grew, drifted out to a certain distance, water-logged and sunk in the mud, and other strata deposited above them, so as to form this intercol- lation between the different leaves of clay. But many believed, from seeing the roots, that the plants grew on the spot where we now find them. But when we come to observe that these roots termi- nate in different strata, it will seem evident that they were carried down, sunk and struck in the mud, as snags are now in the Mississippi. * * * * This may appear contradictory to what has been said with regard to a change of climate since the carboniferous era; but it is not necessarily so. The opinion of Werner, confirmed by the speculations of Brongniart, led him to believe, contrary to his early impressions, that by far the greater part of the coal had grown on the spot where it is found. Accumulating like peat in the land, the land must have been submerged again and again, to allow the strata of sand and mud to be superimposed as we now find them. In excavating for coal at Belgray, near Glasgow, in 1835, many upright trees were found with their roots terminating in a bed of coal ; and only seven years ago, in cutting a section of the Bolton Kailroad in Lancashire, eight or ten trees were found in a vertical position; they were referrable to the Lipido- dendra species, and allied L icopidiums, or club mosses. All were within forty or fifty feet of each other, and some of them were fifteen feet in circumference at the bottom. The roots spread in all directions, and reached beds of clay, and also spread out into the seams of coal. There is no doubt that these trees grew where they are found, and that the roots are in their original position. The seam of coal has possibly been formed of the leaves which fell from the trees. This is a singular fact: that just below the coal seam, and above the covering of the roots, was found more than a bushel of the Lepidostrobus — a fruit not unlike the elongated cone of the fir tree. It has always been imagined that the L epidostrabus was the fruit of the L epidodendra, but here they are found beneath other trees. Under every seam of coal in Wales is found the fire-clay — a sandy, blue mud, 136 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. abounding in the plants called Stigmaria. First is the seam of coal, then the fire-clay, then another seam of coal, and then the sandstone. In one open part of the Newcastle coal field, about thirty species of Sigillarice were discovered : the trunks were two or three feet in diameter. They pierce through the sand in a vertical direction, and after going for some eleven feet perpendicularly, the upper part bends round horizontally, and extends laterally into the sand — and then they are so flattened by the superincumbent strata, that the opposite barks are forced within half an inch of each other. The flutings are beautifully pre- served in the flattened horizontal stems. Here had been an ancient forest grow- ing in a bed of clay — buried in some way with sand to a certain depth, and then the upper part was bent and broken off by the water current, and buried in layers of shale and mud. There are many cases of this kind in Wales, whero the roots of the trees evidently preserve their original position. Mr. Logan, an excellent geologist, has examined no less than ninety of these seams of coal in Wales. They are so exceedingly thin that they are but of little value in an economical light — yet, they are just as important for geological purposes, as if they were thick strata. Under every one of the ninety, he has found fire-clay, a sandy mud, containing the plants called Stigmaria. It was discovered years ago that this fire-clay existed with the coal mine ; but it was not known that it was the floor of every coal seam, and not the root, which contained this plant in a perfect state. The Stigmaria appears in the under-clay (to use the term employed by the miners,) a cylindrical stem, from every side of which extends leaves — no t only from the opposite sides, but from every side, they appear like tubercles, fitting on as by a joint. They radiate in all directions in the mud, where they are not flattened like the ferns. Had they been, we might have had leaves in two directions, but not on every side. These plants resemble the Evphorhiaceoz in their structure, and in some respects are analogous to the cani- ferous or fir tribes. In their whole structure, they are distinct from all living genera or families of plants. In one instance, a dome-shaped mass was found with stems and leaves — some of the branches being twenty or thirty feet in length, and sometimes longer. It has been thought by Dr. Buckland and other geologists, that those plants either trailed along in the mud at the bottom of the swamps, or floated in lakes like the modern Stratiotes. After Mr. Logan had arrived at this remarkable fact, Mr. Lyell became par- ticularly desirous to know if the same fact was true in the United States. When he arrived here in August, 1841, he had no idea how far it was true, yet it was known the Stigmaria did occur ; and his first opportunity to inquire into the fact was at Blossburg, in the Bituminous field, in the northern part of this state. His first inquiry of the geologist was, whether he found Stigmaria there. He received in answer an affirmative reply ; and on being asked if the plant oc- curred in the under -clay, he said that they could soon settle the point. Whereupon he had one of the mines lighted up, and the only plant they could find in the under-clay was this Stigmaria. It existed in abundance — its leaves radiating "m all directions, just as in Wales, more than four thousand miles distant. The ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 137 same cretal appearance was preserved. In the roof of the coal seam were seer. different species of ferns — Sigillaria and Catamites, just as in North Carolina and in Wales. Afterwards another opportunity occurred in the Pottsville region of anthracite coal. Professor Rodgers, the state geologist, who, though well acquainted with the strata of the district, was as anxious as Mr. Lyell to know if the rule would hold good, examined, first at Pottsville, and then at Mauch Chunk, and the same phenomenon was observed at both points. In the first coal mine they came to, the coal had all been quarried away (for the work was carried on in open day), and nothing but the cheeks of the mine remained. The beds, as they have been horizontal, are now not vertical, but have gone through an angle of little more than ninety degrees, and turned a little over, so that what is now the under side was originally the upper ; therefore, the cheek on the left side was originally the floor of the mine. They now looked at the lower cheek, and the first thing they saw was the Stigmaria, very dis- tinct j on the other side, but a little way off were Ferns, Sigillaria, Calamites, Asterophyllites, but no Stigmaria. So it was at Mauch Chunk, where they found one thirty feet long, with leaves radiating in all directions. It has now been ascertained for many years that Professor Caton was quite correct in affirming the anthracite and bituminous coals to be of the same age. This is shown, not only by their relative position with regard to the red sand- stone, but from the plants found in both being identical. All the coal fields, therefore, may be regarded as one whole, and the question will occur, how did it happen that the great floor was let down so as to prevent the accumulation of coal, and yet plants of so different textures should be found in it. It has been suggested that these plants grew in the swamps ; and it is possible to imagine that there may have been morasses fitted only for the "•rowth of the species of plants called Stigmaria; and that, as this marsh filled up, this and the other plants became dry, and the leaves accumulated one layer above another, so as to form beds of coal of a different nature from those that preceded. We know it is a common thing for shallow ponds to fill up gradually with mud and aquatic plants, and at last peat and trees are formed upon them. A corresponding change is constantly going on in different parts of Europe— the same transition from bogs and marshes to a soil capable of supporting various great trees is taking place, and then the ground is submerged ; for always, again and again, we must refer to this subsidence of the soil. Those who have seen the morass called the Great Dismal in North Carolina and Virginia, may possibly have had an opportunity of crossing the northern extremity of it on a railway supported by piles, from Norfolk to Welden. There is no less than forty miles from North to South, and twenty from East to West, covered entirely with various forest trees, under which is a great quantity of moss ; the vegetation is of every variety of size, from common creeping moss to tall cypresses one hundred and thirty feet high. The water surrounds the roots of these trees for many months in the year. And this is a most singular fact to one who has travelled only in Europe, that, as is the case in the United 12* S 138 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. States, trees should grow in the water, and yet not be killed. This Great Dis- mal was explored some years ago by Mr. Edmund Ruffin, author of the valuable Agricultural Journal. He first calls attention to the fact that a greater portion of the vast morass stands higher than the ground that surrounds it; it is a great spongy mass of peat, standing some seven or eight feet higher than its banks, as was ascertained by careful measurements when the railroad was cut through. It consists of vegetable matter, with a slight admixture of earthy substance, as in coal. The source of peat in Scotland is, that one layer of vegetation is not decomposed before another forms. So is it in Chili, Patagonia and Terra del Fuego. Thus, also, is it in different parts of Europe, in the Falkland Islands, as Darwin has shown. Thus, too, is it in the Great Dismal, where the plants and trees are different from those of the peat in New York. It is found, on cutting down the trees and draining the swamp, and letting in the sun, that the vegetation will not be supported as it was before, beneath the dark shade of the trees. In the middle is a fine lake, and the whole is inhabited by wild animals, and it is somewhat dangerous to dwell near it by reason of the bad atmosphere it creates. It is covered by most luxuriant vegetation. It is found in some places in England, that there is a species of walking-mosses, which are some- times seized with a fancy to walk from their places; the moss swells up, bursts, and rolls off, sometimes burying cottages in its path. In some places this peat has been dug into and houses have been found several feet below the surface — curious antiquarian remains. In the same manner the Great Dismal may spread itself over the surrounding country. Having thus dwelt somewhat minutely upon the coal formation, and the geological phenomena to which it is allied, we will, in con- clusion, take a retrospect view of the strata of the earth, and the means which have, from time to time, modified and changed its con- figuration. The origin of our earth, as already intimated, must have been a mass kept in a state of fusion by heat, its surface becoming hard by being gradually cooled. The most ancient portion of the earth, therefore, is composed of granite, which appears in an un- stratified mass, and bears every indication of an igneous origin. There are some kinds of granite, however, of comparatively recent origin, which so clearly resemble the ancient rock as to be sometimes diflicult to distinguish one from the other. Gneiss is a rock very analagous to granite. It is stratified, however, and seems to have been formed under water. It alternates with mica-schist, which or- dinarily accompanies granite and gneiss. Next we have argillaceous schist, which was also formed under water, and which is of a soft, slaty nature, and easily split. These rocks, whose origin is co-eval with the creation of the earth, ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 139 are frequently found at the tops of mountains, as well as at the lowest depths of valleys, which goes to prove that the earth has, at various periods, been subjected to the severest upheavals and internal convulsions. Among these rocks no fossils have ever been found, and it is thus certain that animal and vegetable life did not exist at this early period of the earth's history. It is in the next, or second geological epoch, called the transition formation, that the first traces of the existence of vegetable and ma- rine life on the surface of the globe, are found. Previous to this period, and perhaps as a prelude to the introduction of life, the for- mer rocks had been disturbed, as above mentioned, for we do not find the strata of the transition formation in parallel layers over the primitive beds ; but, on the contrary, they are deposited in the greatest apparent confusion. Geologists have divided this formation into three divisions, which are called respectively the Cambrian, the Silurian, and the Devonian systems of rocks. The former are the oldest sedimentary rocks known, and are composed of schistose grauwackes, mica-schists, and gneiss. The Cambrian rocks contain organic remains of various brachipods, polyparia, coral animals, &c. The Silurian system, which is next above the Cambrian, comprises an upper and lower stratum, and is very nearly similar to those rocks. They are exclusively of marine origin, and whole beds are composed of shells, corals, &c, and those peculiar Crustacea termed Trilobites, and which, being rarely found in other situations, are char- acteristic only of the Silurian and Devonian strata. After the revolutions which seem to have terminated the primitive epoch, the earth must have remained for a long time in a state of re- pose, as we find in the third geological period, denominated the sec- ondary formation, the stratum called the old red sandstone, consisting of a mass of rocks and pebbles, cemented together, having been transported and accumulated through the action of water, and upon which rest the carboniferous deposits. This formation is composed principally of marine fossils, the varieties of which are very numer- ous. The mountain limestone, and metalliferous limestone, in which are found ores of lead, copper, zinc, &c, besides numerous descrip- tions of organic remains, belong to this formation. Next comes the coal formation, and, as previously stated, this is exclusively composed of vegetable matter, formed as aforesaid, and in which marine fossils are rarely found. y 140 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. A violent convulsion seems to have terminated the coal period, which was succeeded by what is called the Saliferous formation — being the fourth geological epoch. In this are found the red con- glomerate, new red sandstone, &c, very often deposited in layers from one to five hundred feet deep. Few organic remains are found in these beds ; but it was at this time that the animals belonging to the class of reptiles were created. In this epoch are embraced several formations, (mostly of local names,) which, not being essential to our present purpose, it is un- necessary to enumerate. The fifth geological epoch, (in ascending order,) comprises what are called the Liassic, the Jurassic, and the Oolitic systems. Previ- ous to this epoch, the earth was inhabited only by certain plants, and a few inferior animals and reptiles ; but at the commencement of this formation, a new fauna was created, composed of animals and rep- tiles of strange form and gigantic size. Rocks of the Jurassic system, as also those of the Liassic, are not met with in this country, and we therefore avoid a further reference to them, as well as the fossils which they contain. In the sixth geological epoch, also in the secondary formation, we have the lower or inferior cretaceous system, abounding, as the latter mentioned series, in marine and animal fossils. This formation con- tains limestone, with here and there deposits of gypsum, clays, sands, iron ores, &c. In England, under the name of Wealden formation, are deposited, in alternate layers, limestone, sand, and clay, all of which are frequently of great thickness. Above the Wealden forma- tion is a group of deposits of green sand, in which are distributed particles of silicate of iron, which are also found in New Jersey. Higher up are again found limestone, sandstones, and chalk marls, the stratification of which is only indicated by layers of flint in the latter. Beds of the cretaceous group are found in New Jersey and other parts of the United States, but they rest on the oldest secondary rocks, without the intervention of the Oolite. The next formation, (and the seventh geological epoch) is called the Tertiary. Between the commencement of this epoch, and the termination of the chalk strata, all traces of ancient or primitive remains are lost ; the fossils which are found in the subsequent for- mations being but types of existing organic creatures. The Tertiary formation is divided by geologists into the Eocene, ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 141 Miocene, and Pliocene ; or the older, middle and newer Tertiary groups. The first named stratum is developed in the states of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, &c. It consists prin- cipally of greenish sands, nearly identical with the cretaceous series, and of the same mineral qualities. Near Paris it embraces layers of limestones, marls, and siliceous matter ; — while in London it forms stiff and again plastic clays, which are useful for manufacturing pur- poses. Above these layers occur various kinds of clays, limestones, maids, gypsums, &c, the latter of which are extensively used in France for the manufacture of Plaster of Paris. Above the gympsum we find a more modern group, composed of marls, sands and flints — the first a marine, and the other a fresh water deposit. The Miocene beds prevail on the Continent of Europe, and in America along the shores of the Chesapeake Bay, and in some parts of Virginia. They abound in fossils, and consist mainly of shells, sands, sandstones, and conglomerates of gravel, which are hard enough for building stones. In some portions of the globe, the Miocene series present combustible materials — and remains of dicotyledonous plants abound in them in Switzerland, Germany and Italy. The Pliocene beds of the United States are of comparatively recent origin. They are found in New York, Kentucky, and along the banks of the Potomac in Maryland. In Europe, brown coal, or lig- nite, is found in layers, which can be advantageously worked. The beds extend all over the old world, and their mineral properties vary in different points ; at some places they exhibit evidences of far greater age than at other points. They consist mainly of marls, sands, and remains of marine, fresh water, and land animals. In this formation are also embraced superficial deposits of drift, consisting of gravel, boulders, sand, clay, &c. There are two kinds of drift, one called the ancient or diluvium and the other the modern or alluvium. In the former, which covers over the Tertiary forma- tion, are found fossils which date not very far back from the present period, — as the diluvial period, in a manner, unites the Tertiary with the recent past. In these deposits are found bones of extinct and recent genera of animals, and among them those of the Magath&rium, the skeletons of which measure eighteen feet in length, and about nine feet in height. This animal is much larger than any subsequent one, and the thigh-bone is believed to be three times as great as that of any known elephant. In this formation are found remains of 142 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. elephants, horses, rhinoceroses, &c, while it is to this period also that geologists refer the immense masses of debris which contain gold, platina, and the diamond, in Brazil, Africa, India, and California, as well as the veins of tin in England and Mexico. The formation known as the boulder or erratic block formation, also belongs to the diluvial period. All over the world these boulders have been de- posited. In some places they are of huge proportions and weight, while ordinarily they consist of gravel stones, of more or less great- ness. They are composed of various mineral material, and not unfrequently are pure and hard granite. In the United States, many of the valleys are filled up to a great depth with the modern or alluvial deposits. They consist mostly of a heterogeneous mass of earthy matter, brought down from the higher lands by rains and freshets. Bones of the buffalo, the ele- phant, and other animals, are found in these beds ; and skeletons of the celebrated Mastodon have been exhumed at different localities. It is in the modern formation, comprising the eighth geological epoch, that the first traces of the human family have been discovered ; and although it is possible that its origin may date farther back than can be supposed from the evidences furnished by the exposed land, yet geologists generally unite in the belief that no earlier records appear in that portion of the earth covered by the sea. Immediately previous to the modern epoch the earth seems to have enjoyed a repose of long duration. With the exception of a few upheavals occurring during the latter portion of the diluvial period, there has been no catastrophe of any moment ; and all the changes which have taken place " since the great flood" have been brought about by various causes — by those gradual and almost imperceptible agencies which, continuing from century to century, and from thou- sandth year to thousandth year, will sooner or later have brought the world to another grand epoch. Having thus desultorily traced the order of strata, we may add that it is always regular. We can never find coal, for example, below the more ancient formations ; though we often see ancient rocks over- laying modern formations, the result of recent eruptions and up- heavals. Thus we perceive the value, in an economical view, of scientific knowledge. Thousands of dollars have been, and are still expended by the uninformed, in explorations after mineral treasure, which, did they but enjoy a limited knowledge of those paramount ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 143 laws which pervade throughout all the Creator's works, could be saved ; besides the labor, anxiety, and bitter disappointments which invariably attend ill-directed enterprises. In casting our eye over the surface of the earth, we everywhere perceive evidences of a universal and continual change. The frosts of autumn, the snows of winter, the rains of spring, the electricity of the summer — each contribute to this purpose. The substance of mountains is daily diminishing ; and rocks, those silent historians of the past, gradually crumble into atoms, and unperceived, are borne off to new resting-places in the deep green ocean. Here they enter into new combinations, and by earthquakes and volcanic action, as well as by the natural accumulation of the beds, again appear to the FIG. 19. light of day, throwing back the surrounding waters, and presenting new " isles in the watery waste." Finally, one little island effects a friendly union with another, and thus, age after age, century after century, the undeviating, the everlasting laws of the great God are performing the functions contemplated in the creation. Although our limits will not allow a minute 'description of the varied strata of the earth's crust, yet it is necessary to a proper eluci- dation of what has already been said as well as what is to follow, to point out some of the changes of position, of fracture, denudation and disruption which they have undergone. Fig. 18, will probably serve to show the original horizontal appearance of strata, one layer lying 144 OFF-HAND SKETCHES, upon another. Fig. 19 exhibits the usual appearance of stratified rocks, lying also in a horizontal position, the lines of stratification "being distinctly marked, dividing the rocks into layers very nearly detached from each other. This is pe- culiar to all aqueous rocks, and may be noticed in quarries of limestone, and similar stratified rooks. From a hori- zontal position, owing to the disturbing causes previously enumerated, the strata have in many instances been changed fig. 20. to a vertical position, as shown in fig. 20. In other cases, they are changed to an inverted position by the intrusion of igneous rocks from below, and actually thrown back, as pig. 21. exhibited in fig. 21. Sometimes the strata are disjointed, and fig. 22 represents a similar instance to the above of change in the direction, probably produced by a like cause ; for the beds which at b, strike in a southerly direction, on reaching a, are thrown into vertical and dis- 4* ,':,■.. ,;;;?;'' /_-'-' ,--•?■■'" *»-" V--SVN' ,-.-"".-»'»'"' FIG. 22. jointed masses at &*. In other instances, the strata' are curved, as is frequently the case with gneiss, especially in the Isle of Wight, a delineation of an instance of which forms the frontispiece of Dr. McCullough's Western Isles, from which fig. 23 is extracted. In many cases, especially in the anthracite coal districts, the strata have a waving or arched position, similar to that indicated in fig. 23, while in other cases they are frightfully contorted, as illustrated in fig. 24. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 145 FIG. 23. FIG. 24. Such contortions were shown by Sir James Hall, by a simple ex- periment, to have resulted from lateral pressure, attended with some degree of resistance, both above and beneath. He took several pieces of cloth — some cotton, some linen — and having placed them horizontally on a table, c, fig. 25, covered them by a weight, a, placed also horizontally on the pieces of cloth. He then exposed fig. 25. fig. 26. the sides to pressure, upon which the curved appearance indicated in fig. 26 was the result. It is thus that, by the chemical opera- tions within the interior of the earth, the strata have been contorted and thrown into every imaginable shape and position, while the unstratified rocks have, at the same time, been heaved up, and 13 T 146 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. thrown around in irregular shapes and quantities. The unstratified, which are the oldest of all rocks, differ from the sedimentary prin- cipally in having no lines or parallel markings ; but present a shape- less and irregular mass of mineral matter, similar to fig. 27. But FIG. 27. while the granite, and other rocks of igneous origin, are unstratified, they still occur in veins, which are sometimes traversed by other veins newer than themselves. This is illustrated in fig. 28, where the new veins project over the old granite somewhat like the horns of a deer. These veins often penetrate the overlying deposits, and flow over the rocks which they displace, as exhibited in fig. 29. f'-^tf^/'U^ FIG. 28. FIG. 29. Sometimes they are so small that the markings of the cleavage are scarcely visible, yet they still resemble stratification, and might readily be mistaken for such. This deceptive appearance is often ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 147 presented at the junction of granite with slate, and may readily be detected by observing the distinct mineral character of the two rocks. Some of the unstratified rocks, more especially basalt and green- stone, occasionally assume a columnar form, as indicated in fig. 30. fig. 30. These columns are of various sizes, but have most generally from four to six sides. They vary, however, in length and shape, not unfrequently appearing in short blocks or prisms — sometimes stand- ing vertically or inclined, and at others laying horizontally. In the celebrated Giant's Causeway, where they occur in a tabular mass, the columns are nearly in a vertical position, as illustrated in the en- fig. 31. We have thus briefly described the unstratified rocks as constitut- ing the frame-work or foundation of the whole superstructure of the globe. The accompanying figure, 31, exhibits the varied situations of the granite, (the oldest rock of the earth,) as forming the foundation upon which all the others repose, and the nucleus of the mountain, which, having been forced through the superincumbent rocks, has borne them upwards in its ascent ; the strata in the vicinity of the mountain, a, being raised at an acute angle at b, and sinking to 148 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. nearly a level position in the plains at c. The form and succession of these rocks, says Prof. Richardson, prevail all over the earth, with some local exceptions ; so that its entire surface may be considered to form a series of basins, of which the largest, deepest, and thickest lie at the bottom, and are filled up by others, which become smaller, shallower and thinner as they approach the top — the deposits being uplifted and raised towards the edges of these basins, and become level, or nearly so, towards the centre. The inclination of strata from a horizontal position is called their dip, the amount of the dip being the quantity of the angle which the line of inclination makes with that of the horizon, as in the accom- panying figure, 32. If the angle made by the meeting of the lines fig. 32. of the strata, &&, and the horizontal line, a, be equal to forty-five degrees towards the east, the strata are said to dip to that extent in that direction. Again, the terms dip and strike of strata will be fur- ther understood — (for these are terms in universal use in mining,) by the following illustration : The dip, as before observed, is the line which the strata makes with the horizon — the strike being a line at right angles to the dip. To illustrate ; place a book on a table, with the edges of the leaves downwards, and the back of the book up- wards, as in the accompanying figure, 33. If one side of the cover be removed a short dis- tance, the cover so moved, &, will represent the line of dip, while the back of the volume, a, a, will exemplify the line of strike. If the cover of the book be extended only in a slight degree, the dip, of course, will be proportionally steep, and vice versa. Having thus ascertained the line of dip, we can determine the probable direction of the strike — for if the dip be towards the north or south, the strike will be east and west ; and vice versa. fig. 33. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 149 TIG. 34. But the converse of this proposition by no means holds good ; for though the line of dip gives the line of strike, the line of strike does not give the line of dip, since there are two lines of dip common to every line of strike ; and strata having a line of strike running from north to south, may dip either to the east or west. In short, as we have moved one side of the cover of our book to the right, we can move the other to the left &, (fig. 34,) while the back of the volume, a, a, remains in the same posi- tion. The terms anticlinal and synclinal lines are frequently used in mining phraseology. The anticlinal line is, simply, that elevated central point from which the strata diverge in opposite directions. To illustrate this, we have only to extend both sides of our volume, as in fig. 35. The synclinal line is exactly the reverse of the above, being the point at which the strata converge towards each other. To illustrate this, we have merely to turn our book over, and open it only half-way, exactly in the middle, and the line between the two pages will present the synclinal line, or that point towards which the strata tend, as exhi- bited in fig. 36. In speaking of strata, in mining phrase- ology, they are said to be conformable when their general planes are parallel, no matter what may be their dip, as in figure 37, where both the upper horizontal strata, a, and the lower inclined series b, are conformable to each other. When a series of upper strata, however, rest on a lower formation, without any conformity to the position of the latter, they bespeak a more modern series, showing that the newest of the underlaying group must have been deposited before the oldest of the latter. They thus occupy an unconformable position, as exhibited in the same fig. 37, wherein the upper horizontal beds, a, are uncon- formable to the lower inclined deposits, b. This simple illustration is very important, because it often shows the position of coal veins 13* 150 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. % fig. 37. lying in an unconformable position to the more modern overlaying surface. Various -writers have cautioned the observer against certain decep- tive appearances of the strata in particular lines of coast, (which are no less frequent in our mountain regions,) where beds, apparently horizontal, in reality dip at a very considerable angle. The follow- ing fig. 38, exhibits a headland as seen from the south, in which the strata appear to the eye perfectly level. There appears to be no mistake about their horizontal position ; but if the headland treads fig. 3S. off, at the point p, in fig. 39, to the northward, affording a view of the cliffs westward, it will be seen that the appearance from the south is defective, for the lines here show a considerable angle to the north, and gradually increasing in their dip, finally become vertical at a. It has already been intimated that fossiliferous rocks follow an invariable order of succession, but that the arrangement, although never reversed, is sometimes imperfect ; so that, while we never meet b going before a, or c preceding b, yet we occasionally miss not only a single letter, but a succession of letters, and find, in certain locali- ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION 151 FIG. 39. FIG. 40. ties, that entire groups of strata are wanting, which occur in other places of like geological character. This effect may have resulted either from the missing beds never having been deposited in this spot, or from their having been denuded, and carried away by the abrading power of water, before the new strata were deposited. Similar causes may have occasioned either the partial deposition, or partial denudation of a single bed, and produced the thinning out of a particular stratum, as exhibited in fig. 40. The con- formable or unconformable posi- tion of the strata affords a safe and satisfactory guide to many investigations of interest and great practical importance. From data thus furnished, we learn that the mountain-chains were not all of contemporaneous origin, but have been raised at different periods, and sometimes under different circ*mstances and agencies. Thus, if on the sides of one mountain, fig. 41, we find a series of strata, a, raised and covered unconformably by another group, b, it is obvious that the central chain must have been thrown up after the series a had been deposited, but before the formation of the beds b. But if, on the sides of another mountain, fig. 42, we find both the series a and b tilted, and covered unconformably by another series c, we have proofs that this mountain chain is of more modern date than that on the sides of which the same strata, b, are undisturbed. We have already remarked, that in all mineral regions, and espe- 152 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. FIG. 41. cially in that of coal, where the basins are generally more or less disturbed — as, from the very nature of the deposit, they must be — the dip and strike of the strata are matters of great practical moment. Prof. Richardson, in his geological work, supposes a case, where a land-owner, aware that coal exists on an adjacent estate, is desirous of ascertaining whether it may also be found on his own, and whether an attempt to discover it might be instituted with probabilities of success. In this case, the dip is almost the sole reliance. If the dip of the strata in the vicinity be towards the land where the trial is to be made, it is highly probable that the coal may be found under fig. 43. it ; but if it is in a contrary direction, the search ought not to be un- dertaken (unless, on examination, the veins should prove to be bro- ken, and have a backward pitch.) The lines outcroping at the surface, fig. 43, and numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4, represent coal veins, dipping towards d, on the right-hand side ; the unconformable strata, c c, are beds of sandstone lying over the coal veins. Supposing coal ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 153 vein No. 4 to rise to the surface at that point on the estate of A, ad- joining the estate of B, which lies towards d; it is apparent that A would find only a point of the vein on his land, and that it would be useless to search in the direction of b for it, since the dip of the veins is sufficient to show that none exists there. But on the estate of B, though no coal came to the surface, still the dip of that which exists on the estate of A, would render it probable that coal could be readily found — the circ*mstances of its lying too deep for successful mining being considerations which would depend very much on the angle of dip, and the nature of its position in other respects. Strata are said to form outlayers when they constitute an isolated portion, detached from the principal mass of the same bed or region of which they once life. -C r- T FIG. 44. formed a part. (The anthracite coal regions are merely outlayers of the great Alleghany bituminous field, which originally comprised one immense body.) Thus, in fig. 44, the beds a and b form outlayers of the main strata, c and d — the missing portion having been removed by denundation, while their original identity is fully established by the accordance of the mineral deposit and position. Strata are also said to form an escarpement when terminating abruptly, as in the above figure, a and b. The origin of valleys has most generally been referred to the agency of water ; but there are other causes besides this. The surface, as FIGURE 45. well as the interior strata, are first dislocated by enormous fissures, caused by the upheaval of the region of which they form a part- U 154 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. Fig. 45 represents such an upheaval, and shows the steep escarpements which follow as a natural consequence. It is in these fissures, there- fore, that the formation of valleys commences, gradually enlarging until two or more unite. It is thus that most of the mountains east of the Alleghany have been formed, the water traversing them having carried off the material lying over them, and thus left steep and FIGURE 46. rugged ridges, with narrow intervening valleys. Valleys of undula- tion, however, are produced directly by two neighboring elevations, which, by lifting the strata on either side without occasioning fracture, leave the valley between. This is the most usual structure of the coal beds of Schuylkill County, fig. 46, and hence it follows that that county contains a much greater amount of mineral, in proportion to the superficial area, than any other ^district in the United States. The whole county is but a succession of wave-like elevations, with narrow intervening valleys, all of which are full of the valuable mineral for which the region is so remarkable. Valleys of erosion are formed by the action of water. Imagine a nearly level plain, and then, at one end of it let a stream of water issue forth : in a compa- ratively short time, with the assistance of snows and rains, and alter- nate dry seasons, it will scoop out a hollow similar to fig. 47, while, in course of time, it will form a deep valley, surrounded with high elevations, or table-lands. The Alleghanies have, for the most part, been scooped out in this manner, and the debris deposited in the table-fiats sloping out from its loftier ranges. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION 155 The word fault is one very ex- tensively used in mining, and refers to the dislocations which interrupt the continuity of the strata. They are of various kinds and forms, and constitute a source of great ex- pense and annoyance in mining coal. Fig. 48 represents an exam- ple, where the strata, which were once continuous, either by their sub- sidence on one side, or their elevation onthe other, have been dislocated and displaced. Suppose that b, on the left, were a coal vein : on arriving at the f mdt, and penetrating it, the coal vein is lost, and a great expense necessarily ensues before it can be found. "While faults are a source of great annoyance, generally speaking, they still afford some corresponding advantages, since they somewhat counteract the tendency of the coal veins — pitching, as they do in this region, at a steep angle, to plunge into inaccessible depths ; and when the fis- sures are filled with solid rocks, as they most generally are, they form strong supports for the overlaying strata, as well as embankments to k'iep back the water from the mine. There is, we have stated, a fig. 49. variety of faults, both of rock and clay, or soft earth. We present another idea in reference to them, in fig. 49, where the strata have been still more disturbed than in the preceding. We have thus, somewhat briefly, pointed out some of the leading features constituting the vegetation and stratification of the coal for- mation ; to dwell upon them at greater length than is necessary to sustain the tenor of our object, would be a waste of time, and would usurp too much of our space. For much of what has been said, we are indebted to the able geological works of Prof. Richardson, and acknowledge our obligations with a high sense of appreciation 156 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. of his researches. With these examples, therefore, we must leave this branch of the subject, and proceed to the direct consideration of the great anthracite coal beds now before us. DISCOVERY OF ANTHRACITE COAL. The discovery of coal in the Lehigh district is said to have been purely accidental. There had been legends of long standing, sup- posed to have emanated from the Indians, that coal abounded in this section of Pennsylvania ; and among some of the credulous German farmers in Lehigh, Berks, Lancaster, &c, one is occasionally re- minded of them, and grave intimations thrown out that coal is reposing in "certain places" beneath the luxuriant soil of those counties. Such traditionary reports prevailed for a long time among the early settlers of the territory now comprising the several coun- ties of the anthracite regions, and if similar ones in the counties above named should ever be realized in the same happy manner, all will unite in admiration of the German stoicism with which they are still maintained by the ■" older inhabitants." The story of its dis- covery near Mauch Chunk, in the present county of Carbon, is doubtless already familiar to many. Nevertheless, it is so curious and romantic in itself, and is fraught with such miraculous results upon the physical and mental condition of mankind, that we cannot omit it here. The account was given by the late Dr. James, of Phila- delphia, who, in the year 1804, in company with Anthony Morris, Esq. of the same city, visited some lands, held jointly by them, near Sharp Mountain. " In the course of our pilgrimage, we reached the summit of Mauch Chunk mountain, the present site of anthracite coal. At the time there were only to be seen three or four small pits, which had the appearance of the commencement of rude wells, into one of which our guide, Philip Ginter, descended with great ease, and threw up some pieces of coal for our examination. After which, whilst we lingered on the spot, contemplating the wildness of the scene, honest Philip amused us with the following narrative of the original dis- covery of this most valuable of minerals, now promising, from its general diffusion, so much of wealth and comfort to a great portion of the United States. " He said that when he first took up his residence in that district of country, he built himself a rough cabin in the forest, and supported ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 157 his family by the proceeds of his rifle ; being literally a hunter of the backwoods. The game he shot, including bear and deer, ho carried to the nearest store, and exchanged for other necessaries of life. But at this particular time, to which he then alluded, he was without a supply of food for his family ; and after being out all day with his gun in quest of it, he was returning, towards evening, over the Mauch Chunk mountain, entirely unsuccessful and disappointed ; a drizzling rain beginning to fall, and night rapidly approaching, he bent his course homeward, considering himself one of the most for- saken of human beings. As he strode slowly over the ground, his foot stumbled against something, which, by the stroke, was driven before him ; observing it to be black, to distinguish which there was just light enough remaining, he took it up, and as he had often list- ened to the traditions of the country of the existence of coal in the vicinity, it occurred to him that this might be a portion of that stone- coal, of which he had heard. He accordingly carefully took it with him to the cabin, and the next day carried it to Colonel Jacob Weiss, residing at what was then known by the name of Fort Allen — (erected under the auspices of Dr. Franklin.) The Colonel, who was alive to the subject, brought the specimen with him to Philadelphia, and submitted it to the inspection of John Nicholson and Michael Hillegas, Esqs., and also to Charles Cist, a printer, who ascertained its nature and qualities, and authorized the Colonel to pay Ginter for his discovery, upon his pointing out the precise spot where he found the coal. This was readily done by acceding to Ginter' s proposal of getting, through the regular forms of the patent-office, the title for a small tract of land, which he supposed had never been taken up, comprising the mill-seat on which he afterwards built the mill which afforded us the lodging of the preceding night, and which he after- wards was unhappily deprived of by the claim of a prior survey." Coal was known to exist in the vicinity of Pottsville more than seventy years ago, and searches for it had been made repeatedly— but the coal found was so different from any previously known, that it was deemed utterly valueless — more especially as no means could be devised to burn it. Searches for it were abandoned, at least for a time, when a blacksmith, by the name of Whetstone, luckily chanced upon some, and immediately undertook to use it in his shop. After experimenting with it for a short time, his efforts proved successful, and his triumph having been duly communicated, in the shape of 14 158 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. local gossip, to the citizens of the surrounding neighborhood, atten- tion was very soon after directed to the expediency of instituting further inquiries as to the nature and extent of the deposit, and its applicability for other purposes. Among those who at a very early period did not hesitate to declare his belief in the existence of coal in this district, was the late Judge Cooper ; and it was through the influence of such persons that searches were continued through cir- c*mstances and prejudices at once discouraging, and seemingly fool- hardy. Among the first, if they were not the first, who undertook explorations for coal, were the Messrs. Potts. They made examina- tions at various points along the old Sunbury road, but in no instance did success attend them. The late William Morris, soon after the operations of Messrs. Potts were terminated, became proprietor of most of the lands lying at the head of the Schuylkill ; and about the year 1800 he was fortunate enough to find coal, and in the same year took a considerable quantity to Philadelphia. It was in vain that he held forth its peculiar virtues, and vast future importance — all his efforts to convince the people of its adaptation to use proved abortive ; and when, occasionally, an individual was found who could be induced, through the force of argument and eloquence, to coincide in the merits of " stone-coal," the well-known lines — A man convinced against his will, Is of the same opinion still — would be involuntarily forced upon his mind ; and finally he had no other alternative but to dispose of his lands, and abandon his projects as altogether fruitless. We do not know that any farther notice had now been taken of this coal, for six or seven years afterwards. Peter Bastons made some discoveries of its deposit, while erecting the Forge in Schuyl- kill Valley ; and a blacksmith, named David Berlin, continued to im- prove upon the suggestions of Whetstone, (who, by this time, had discontinued business, and perhaps left the vicinity) and imparted his successes freely to others of his craft. But few, however, could be prevailed upon to use it. Prejudice — prejudice was ever keen, and it seemed to keep- men of ordinary spirit at a respectful distance. Men'of iron nerve could only oppose themselves to the current. In the latter part of the year 1810, a practical chemist, combining science with practice, made such an analysis of the coal of this re- ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 159 gion, as convinced him that there was inherent in the mass all the properties suitable for combustion. He therefore erected a furnace in a small vacant house on Front street, between Philadelphia and Kensington, to which he applied three strong bellows. By this means he obtained such an immense wliite lieat from the coal, that platina itself could have been melted ! From this experiment was derived such proofs of its qualities, as ultimately favored its general introduc- tion into that city. But although it might easily be inferred that such experiments could not fail to have secured for it immediate favor, yet such was by no means the fact. Intelligent men, it is true, calmly deliberated over the subject, but that was all — the time had not yet come to act. Two years after this, the late Col. George Shoemaker and Nicholas Allen discovered coal on a piece of land which they had but recently purchased — in times past called Centreville — situate about one mile from Pottsville. They raised several wagon-loads of it, but no purchaser could be found. Mr. Allen soon became disheartened, and disposed of his interest in the lands to his partner ; who, having re- ceived some encouragement from certain citizens of Philadelphia, persevered in his operations. He got out a considerable quantity, and forwarded ten wagon-loads to Philadelphia, in quest of a market. Its arrival there was, as usual, greeted with the warmest prejudice, and there were few who appeared to evince any curiosity or interest in the subject. Nearly every one considered it a sort of stone, and, saving that it was a " peculiar stone" — a stone-coal — they would as soon have thought of making fire with any other kind of stone ! Among all those who examined the coals, but few persons could be prevailed upon to purchase, and they only a small quantity, " to try it ;" but alas ! the trials were unsuccessful ! The purchasers denounced Colonel Shoemaker as a vile imposter and an arrant cheat ! Their denunciations went forth throughout the city, and Col. Shoe- maker, to escape an arrest for swindling and imposture, with which he was threatened, drove thirty miles out of his way, in a circuitous route, to avoid tlie officers of the law ! He returned home, heart-sick with his adventure. But, fortunately, among the few purchasers of his coal, were a firm of iron factors in Delaware county, who, hav- ing used it successfully, proclaimed the astounding fact in the news- papers of the day. The current of prejudice thereafter began to waver somewhat; and new experiments were made at iron works 160 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. on the Schuylkill, with like success, the result of which was also an- nounced by the press. From this time, anthracite began gradually to put down its enemies — and among the more intelligent people, its future value was predicted. The first successful experiment to generate steam with anthracite coal, was made in 1825, at the iron works at Phoenixville. Previously, however, John Price Wetherill, of Philadelphia, made several efforts to accomplish this, at his lead works — but we have understood that he only partially succeeded. We will now pass by three or four years, during which little wor- thy of note occurred, and behold the coal trade, in the first smiles of infancy, starting into active existence. As early as 1812 the forests in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and the vicinity of many of the principal towns of the adjoining counties, began rapidly to disappear. Cord wood, and every description of building timber, were held at high prices — the former, during the winter months, frequently rang- ing between thirteen and sixteen dollars per cord. There were no improvements except turnpike roads, by which the magnificent tim- ber of some of the more distant counties could be reached ; and under these circ*mstances, and as population and business increased, atten- tion was directed to the necessity of rendering navigable the Schuyl- kill river. It was originally designed for the products of the forest, the mine,, and the field ; all of which abounded in the counties drained by this stream, and its numerous tributaries. The forests, especially, were remarkable for the quality of the timber, and the height and symmetrical beauty of the trees ; and among intelligent capitalists little doubt was now entertained as to the destiny which awaited the product of the mine — satisfied that it needed but a fair start to ensure its onward progress. We have thus glanced at some of the leading incidents connected with the early history of the coal trade ; it now remains to consider the position, dimensions, and structure of the coal basins themselves, which, ever since their discovery, have annually grown in value and importance, and, in their future bearing upon the economy of trade, are more important to the people of Pennsylvania than all the gold of California. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 161 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE COAL REGION'S. Locality. — The anthracite formation of PenDsylvania lies in tha Counties of Schuylkill, Dauphin, Lebanon, Carbon, Northumberland, Columbia, and Luzerne, in the middle part of the Eastern portion of the State. It is watered by the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, and Lehigh rivers, and their numerous tributary branches. Extent. — The anthracite formation of Pennsylvania may be divided into three grand divisions, or large coal regions ; the first, or most southern division, being known as the South Anthracite Region ; the second division called the Middle Anthracite Region, and the third grand division is known as the North Anthracite Re- gion, or Wyoming Coal-field. The three great anthracite regions may again be divided into coal districts, as follows, viz. : The coal districts contained in the south anthracite region, commencing at its eastern end, and continuing thence westward, are the Lehigh, Tamaqua, Tuscarora, Schuylkill Valley, Pottsville, Minersville, Swatara, and the Lykens' Valley, and Dauphin — the Lykens' Valley being the north fork, and the Dauphin the south fork of the western extension of the south anthracite re- gion. The middle anthracite region, commencing at the western end, and continuing thence eastward, has the Shamokin, Mahanoy, Girards- ville, and Quaquake coal districts ; together with the small detached coal basins contiguous to the Lehigh river, as the Beaver Meadow, Hazleton, Black Creek, Sandy Creek, and others of still smaller area. The north anthracite region, commencing west and continuing thence north-eastward, has the Shickshinny, Wilkesbarre, Newport, Pittston, Lackawanna, and Carbondale coal districts. The south anthracite region extends in length from its eastern point-like end, near the Lehigh, to its western terminus near the Sus- quehanna — a distance of about seventy-five miles. The greatest breadth, including the coal formation on Broad Mountain, is about six miles. This measurement is across the widest and central portion of the region, and will only hold good for a short distance. The average width of coal ground of the south anthracite region is not more than about two miles. This region, as has already been remarked, is spread 14* Y 162 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. like a canoe, being broadest at Pottsville, and gradually contracting at each end at the Susquehanna and the Le- ^H high. Thus, at Tamaqua, sixteen miles east of Pottsville, the basin is a little more than a mile in width, and the arrangement of the strata is exhibited in the following figure, 50, which we extract from the book of the late Richard C. Taylor. The middle anthracite region, with the detatched coal basins at its eastern part, on the Lehigh, extends in length to its point- like terminus at its western end, which point is about seven miles east from the river Susquehanna — a distance of about fifty miles. The middle region will average nearly as much coal ground as the first named region. The north anthracite region extends ! from its north-eastern end, on the head \ waters of Lackawanna creek, to its west- ; ern point at Skickshinny, on the north I branch of the Susquehanna, a distance 1 of upwards of sixty miles. This will | not average so great an area of coal ! ground as either of the other two great j regions. * Within the limits of the three great an- thracite regions, are ridges and spaces composed of conglomerate, red shale, and sandstone strata, which lie between, and separate from each other the several ba- sins of each of the three great divisions. In this stratification no coal exists. The value of the land which contains the coal is calculated by taking into consideration the number, thickness, character, and qua- lity of the veins of mineral in each particu- lar place, and from their adaptation for min- ing to advantage, and their accessibility to market. FIG. 50. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 163 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. The anthracite formation of Pennsylvania, as regards its geological character, especially in the south region, is very much distorted, and the coal veins disturbed, and irregular in their courses. In working the mines faults, both of a hard and soft nature, or, in other -words, rock and slate, (or what is not inappropriately named dirt faults, some of which are of great magnitude) are frequently met with, which not only prove a great loss to the owners of the properties in which they occur, by diminishing the quantity of coal, but are often a serious inconvenience to the prosecution of the mine, and a great drawback upon the profits of the operators and lessees of the colliery, sometimes occasioning the abandonment of the work altogether. In the middle anthracite region, taking as an index the mines in operation, the explorations already made, and the general kind ap- pearance of the rocks, and great regularity of the surface, it is pre- sumed that faults will not be. found to exist to any great extent. Indeed, the whole geological character of the middle anthracite re- gion — the general order and range of the stratification being so uniform and undisturbed — goes far to prove that faults of any magnitude will be rarely encountered. The mountains are very high, the coal veins, especially those of the bottom part of the series, are gene- rally thick, and crop out high up the mountain sides ; therefore, an inexhaustable amount of coal, of the very best quality, may be safely calculated upon as existing in this coal region. In the north region the general character of the strata is undu- lating, and comparatively flat to what is found in the south or middle regions. The coal veins, which are those of the bottom of the for- mation, are generally of great thickness, and of good quality, but in quantity there is not that average amount per acre of coal as is found in the other great regions. This may be accounted for from the slightly undulating arrangement of the strata, and from the wa- ters of the North Branch of the Susquehanna River, which flow through the central part of the coal valley, having changed its course from time to time, and swept or washed away much of the coal, leaving in places sand and gravel banks that cover considerable area of surface. The great Wyoming flats indicate the change which has taken place in the course of the river. 164 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The basis of the anthracite formation of Pennsylvania is a con- glomerate rock, consisting of white quartz pebbles of various sizes, imbedded in a strong siliceous cement ; underneath the conglomerate is a thick mass of red shale and sandstone strata, which completely encircles, in a continuous mountain chain, the three great anthracite regions of the State. The conglomerate, where the measures are perpendicular, forms high massive walls of rock on the summit of the mountains which bound the coal regions, and divide the coal basins ; and it is of such a durable, undecomposing nature, that in some places where the strata is on edge, it rises a natural wall twenty to thirty feet in height above the level of the crest of the mountain, and not more than from two to three feet in thickness from the base up. In other places it lies en masse in immense blocks, covered with a variety of mos& — giving it an imposing, extraordinary rough, and romantic ap- pearance, as in the valley of the Swatara, Wolf Creek, etc. As the coal measures — from their highly inclined angle of dip, which are in some places in the mountain that forms the southern boundary of the south anthracite coal region, overtilted — pass to a lesser angle of inclination, which gradually decreases in proceeding northward over the three great anthracite regions — the conglome- rate becomes more thin and less abrupt in its character ; and, indeed, its situation is at times only marked by the loose detached white pebble stones scattered over the surface of the ground, the cement which binds the parts together being in some situations of a more decomposing quality than it is at other places. The red shale, by exposure to the air, and by the action of water, decomposes very freely, and is the great reason why the general character of the mountains which form the boundaries of the coal regions are so steep as they are found to be where streams of any size run along their base ; while the conglomerate on their summits remains undisturbed a rock of ages, until the red shale, on which it reposes, crumbles away, and thus these immense rocks are hurled from their elevated natural position into the valleys below, and thus are immense boulders of the conglomerate carried away from their native beds to great distances. The south anthracite region contains several elongated synclinal and anticlinal axis of stratification. The general order of tho coal veins ran^e parallel with the mountain chains that bound the sides ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 165 of the troughs or basins, which is in an east and west direction — the general dip of the veins being north and south. The first or south axis or trough of coal strata, of the south an- thracite region, is bounded by Sharp Mountain on the south, and by a range of hills, parallel with Sharp Mountain, on the north. This axis is in shape like a canoe, its greatest width being about the town of Pottsville, which, in that place, is something over half a mile. The eastern terminus of this axis is a short distance south-east of Middle- port. The western terminus is near the Susquehanna. Its continua- tion westward forms the southern fork of coal strata in Dauphin district. The extreme length of this axis is about fifty miles. At each terminus of this axis or trough of coal strata, the bottom veins end in a point, and are considerably elevated above the place of the same veins in the central part. In the commencement of mining operations in Schuylkill county, and indeed down to the present time, it has been considered by many persons who profess a knowledge of these matters, that the range of Coal veins in Sharp Mountain, which are what is termed overlilted from the perpendicular, are not identical with those veins worked on the opposite side of this narrow trough or synclinal axis— i. e. they are not the uprising to the south of the coal veins worked in the range of hills on the north side of the trough, and which dip to the south, and the sections hitherto made and published tend to show that the veins on the north side of the axis are not connected with those of Sharp Mountain. It is true that the coal veins of both sides of this synclinal axis dip in the same direction to the south— those of Sharp Mountain on the south side the axis at an angle of about 80° to 85°, and those on the hills on the north side the axis, at an angle of 45° to 50°, and 60°,— yet there is ample evidence to prove the fact that the south and north ranges connect with each oilier, and will be found to basin beneath the surface in the valley. In an excavation at Pottsville, made in the centre of the two ranges of coal strata of the first or south synclinal axis, is developed the curvature of the axis,— the stratification of rock overlaying the upper vein of coal is regularly continued and unbroken from one side of the range to the other, and at the extreme ends of this elongated trough, from the bottom veins of coal being highly elevated, and their dip thereby considerably decreased, they show the axis to be perfect throughout, and the south and north ranges identical and connected 166 OFE-HAND SKETCHES. with each other. Thus we have at the extreme ends of the first syn- clinal axis, the bottom, and in the centre of it, the top of the stratifi cation of which it is composed, in a perfect and regular basin-like and synclinal order — clearly connecting the coal veins which are found in Sharp Mountain, the south side of the axis, with those in the small range of hills, the north side of the axis. A very important experiment has recently been made at St. Clair, in this basin, which goes to prove that the white ash veins of Mine Hill and Broad Mountain run into the Schuylkill basin, where they underlie the red ash coal. At the anticlinal axis, at the place above named, a shaft was lately sunk, which, after penetrating about a hundred and fifty yards, struck a vein of white ash coal, lying nearly horizontal, and thirty feet in thickness. The result of this discovery is, that the Schuylkill basin necessarily contains a much larger amount of coal, to the acre, than any other basin of either of the three great regions, and from its position at the head of navi- gation, renders the value of the land correspondingly great. The value of coal land, in this basin, is moreover greatly increased by the inclined position which the coal strata occupy, thus affording a greater amount of coal to the acre, than if they lay flat or horizontal. An acre of coal land, in Schuylkill county, estimated at twenty-five cents per ton, is worth from twenty to thirty thousand dollars, and it will not be long before such prices, high as they may now seem, will be freely realized. A single vein of coal in the Mine Hill region, for several years past, has returned an annual rental of over $62,000 to the proprietors, from four or five colliery works in operation upon it; and the same tract will probably continue to yield a like sum for many years to come. A prejudice against the productive value of coal lands was early created by the scenes of speculation which formerly involved them, and from their outside connection with ill-conceived improvements. The day for speculation, however, is about disappearing ; and people are now awaking to a sense of the true and bona fide value of coal lands, which must henceforth greatly increase with the increasing annual demands of the trade. We repeat, therefore, what we know to be the fact, that an acre of coal land, favorably situated in Schuyl- kill county is worth, on a fair average, at least three times the amount of money of a similar acre, situated in other districts where the strata are horizontal, the veins flatened out, the coal necessarily soft, and ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 16" the facilities for mining correspondingly impaired. The value of Schuylkill county land is also greatly increased by the facilities for transportation to market, the numerous lateral roads penetrating every coal district, and the natural adaptation of the county for minin- purposes. In respect to market, this coal region is the nearest, and for all time to come must rule the destiny of the trade The real future value of its coal land is, in our opinion, far beyond estimate. The gold of California, centred in one huge stupendous lump could not purchase a single basin of it, were we the fortunate owner In his description of the Sharp Mountain range of coal strata, our State Geologist and myself* do not agree, and it may not be out of place here to give his remarks thereon in full, with the reason why my opinion and his are at variance with each other, as to this par- ticular part of the coal formation. Prof. Rogers, in his second report on the Geological exploration of Pennsylvania, p. 80, says: "By far the most conspicuous north and south disruption of the coal measures and their southern conglomerate barrier, is displayed in an enormous dislocation of the entire chain of the Sharp Mountain, about nine miles east of Pottsville, by which the whole mass of the moun- tain on the eastern side of the break, has been moved northward, through at least one-fourth of a mile, throwing, of course, all the coal seamsfar out of their regular position." Prom a careful examination of the place referred to by Professor Rogers, as above, I find that no evidence is shown that the coal measures of Sharp Mountain have been moved northward, or in any way displaced ; but, on the con- trary, a uniform regularity is maintained in this part of the coal region. The Sharp Mountain, it is true, is not continued eastward further than the place referred to, for the reason that the coal mea- sures of the first synclinal axis of the south anthracite region having terminated there. The coal veins of this axis, as I before observed, are gradually elevated as they approach this point, one vein basining out after another, until the last or bottom vein of the axis runs up on the table land at the end of the mountain, bounded by the con- glomerate. The red shale at the termination of the axis, from its soft decomposing nature, forms an abrupt declivity, occasioned by the streams which flow down its sides into the valley below— and this is ® Wm. F. Roberts, Esq., Geologist and Mining Engineer, to whom we are in- debted for a portion of these remarks on the Geological structure of the coal formation. 168 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. the "conspicuous north and south disruption" of Mr. Rogers. Further north than the termination of the first axis, another moun- tain (not Sharp Mountain,) bounds the south side of the second axis of coal strata of the south anthracite region. The second synclinal axis lies between the range of hills before named, and a range further north, which, in the vicinity of Pottsville, is called Peach Mountain. The coal veins of the Peach Mountain range are very much contorted in their disposition, having several undulations or axis of a minor synclinal and anticlinal character. In the more elevated land along the range of Peach Mountain, the curvatures of the coal veins are more duplicated than they are in the low parts of this mountain range. A better development of this peculiar coal formation may be seen in the lands north-east of Middle- port, where the curvatures of the strata are more numerous and exposed by actual workings, than may be found in any other position along the entire range The uprising of the coal veins at this place forms several synclinal and anticlinal axis — the lower veins curve over before they reach the surface, and the upper ones lie over them in an uniform way. In some places, where denudation has taken place, the continuity of the saddle, or anticlinal curve of the upper veins, is washed off, and the same veins form several north and south dips, which, previous to the nature of the formation having been clearly understood, were taken for so many different and distinct veins of coal. This misconstruction of the true geological character of the veins, and the reason why so many outcrops are exposed, not being considered, led to a great many errors in the estimation of the real value of the coal land in the Peach Mountain range, as regarded the quantity of mineral contained therein. In many other places, too, in the anthracite formation, the same causes have, and do even at the present time, lead to similar results, and is the reason why erroneous calculations are not unfre- quently made. The extreme length of the axis of Peach Mountain coal strata is about thirty-five miles. The eastern terminus of the synclinal axis is at the Old Summit coal mines on the Lehigh estate. This, the second axis, extends further east than the first axis a distance of about eleven miles. The western extreme point of the second syn- clinal axis is about twenty-five miles east from the western end of the south fork of coal strata in Dauphin district, and about fourteen miles east from the western end of the north fork of coal strata in Lykens' ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 169 "V alley district. The point of termination of the second axis is where the two before-named forks begin to diverge in their westward pro- longation from their course eastward. The terminus is seven miles north-west from Pinegrove. In the continuation of the axis of Peach Mountain coal strata, the undulations that are found in its central part do not continue through its entire length — as its eastern and western parts — for as the bottom coal veins of the axis become more elevated, the curvatures of the strata are diminished. The third synclinal axis is between Peach Mountain and Mine Hill, and extends from the point-like terminus of the south anthracite region, near the Lehigh Eiver, to a similar terminus, the end of the north fork in the Lykens' Valley district, — a distance of about fifteen miles. In this axis undulations and curvatures of the coal strata are found, but not of that frequent occurrence as in the Peach Mountain range. These undulations may be seen at Rhume Run, in the Lehigh district ; on Silver Creek, in Schuylkill Valley district, (north of Pinegrove,) and in the Lykens' Valley district. The fourth synclinal axis of coal strata is known as the Broad Mountain coal basin, which lies between Mine Hill and Broad Moun- tain ; its eastern end is between the head waters of Wolf Creek and Silver Creek ; its western end is west of " "Woolaston's or Raulin's tavern." The length of this axis is about eleven miles. The fifth synclinal axis of coal strata is on the summit of Broad Mountain ; its eastern end is east of New Boston colliery ; its western end, west of Raulin's Run. The length of this axis is about fourteen miles. The axis is narrow, and the coal is in places washed off — therefore, it is not so valuable in point of quantity of coal as it would be were the veins continuous through it. The foregoing axis of coal strata constitute the south anthracite region — the first grand division of the anthracite formation of Penn- sylvania. The middle anthracite region contains, as well as the elongated syn- clinal and anticlinal axis of coal strata, several small and detached coal basins. Between Mahanoy Mountain, the south boundary of the middle anthracite region, and the mountain ranging parallel thereto, and next north, known as Locust Mountain, are three synclinal and two anti- clinal axis of coal strata. The valley containing these axis is about twenty-six miles in length. The eastern termination of the axis is 15 W 170 off-hand sketches. about eleven miles east from Girardsville, near the head waters of the Mahanoy and source of the tributaries of the Little Schuyl- kill. The western termination is south of Shamokin. Both ter- minations of this axis break off in a similar manner to the eastern termination of the first axis, in the south anthracite region. Locust Mountain is the north boundary of the Mahanoy, and the south boun- dary of Shamokin coal valley. The north boundary of Shamokin coal valley is Big Mountain. In the Shamokin coal valley, taking its central part as a section, there are four synclinal and three anticlinal axis of coal strata, besides a roll of the outcrops of the lower veins of coal shown on the north slope of Locust Mountain. The first syncli- nal axis of the Shamokin coal valley is between Locust Mountain and Mount Carmel Ridge ; the second between Mount Carmel Ridge and Mine Ridge ; the third between Mine Ridge and Coal Run Ridge ; the fourth between Coal Run Ridge and Big Mountain. The anticlinal axis are Mount Carmel, Mine Ridge and Coal Run Ridge. The most complete and beautiful development of the coal strata of the anthracite formation of Pennsylvania, is the anticlinal axis of Mount Carmel Ridge, developed by the north branch of Shamokin Creek. The creek passes through the axis at a right angle to the run of the coal strata, about five hundred yards west from the centre turn- pike at Mount Carmel — the arch of sandstone rock is cut down per- pendicularly, forming a beautiful curve, and giving an admirable illus- tration of the regularity and perfection of this part of the coal field. The anticlinal axis of Mine Ridge is likewise cut by the same stream, and affords another example of the perfection of the coal strata of the Shamokin coal valley. Mine Ridge, from the Centre turnpike, gradu- ally rises into a hill of great elevation eastward, where coal veins of great thickness and extraordinarily pure quality are opened — a strong evidence that this ridge ( or axis of coal strata, when thoroughly deve- loped, will prove to contain mineral in quantity and quality inferior to few other places in the anthracite formation of Pennsylvania. Big Mountain contains the bottom series of coal veins which crop out along its summit. These veins are the same as those developed in Locust Mountain, the thickest veins of the anthracite formation. The Shamokin coal valley extends in length from its eastern termi- nus, on the head waters of Little Schuylkill and Quaquake creeks, to its western terminus within about seven miles from the Susquehanna — a distance of about forty miles. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION 171 The eastern terminus of the Shamokin coal valley has two forks of coal strata, similar to the forks of the western terminus of the south anthracite region, but much smaller in point of length and width. North of these forks are the detached coal basins of Beaver Meadow, Dreck Creek, Hazleton, Black Creek, Little Black Creek, Sandy Creek, and Hell Kitchen, extending one after the other northward to the Nescopeck Mountain. The Nescopeck summit is conglomerate, the base of the coal formation ; and from it to the Wyoming coal field, traces of the coal formation are found — a sufficient evidence that the three great divisions of the anthracite formation of Pennsylvania were, in former times, a connected and continuous formation of coal strata. The Black Creek coal basin, laying about one mile and a half north from the Hazleton coal basin collieries, in Luzerne County, has for the last few years been attracting much attention, owing to the ex- tensive explorations made by boring and shafting on the Black Creek coal estate, where a mammoth vein of coal has been struck and passed through, of the thickness of twenty-eight feet, and two other veins, one of six and the other of seven feet. These veins of coal are sup- posed to underlay the greater part of this estate, and show themselves to be of the very best quality. In fact, it is believed by many that when the Black Creek coal basin shall be fully developed, it will be found one of the richest basins in the Lehigh coal field. This basin, as far as the developments extend, would seem to afford to the miner easy facilities for taking out the coal, and its proximity to the Hazle- lon Railroad, must in a short time render it of great consideration to those who are now the owners of the land. This basin is about fifteen miles in length, and has many advantages in procuring sup- plies, such as provisions, &c, being but a short distance from the beautiful farming district of Conyngham Yalley, and only separa- ted from it by Buck Mountain. 172 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The south anthracite region contains white, red, and gray ash coal veins. The white ash are found in the Lehigh, the Broad Mountain, the Mine Hill, and underlie the Pottsville basin. The principal gray ash are in the Peach Mountain range, and the principal red ash coal are the south dipping veins of the first synclinal axis. The south fork in Dauphin district has, in its eastern end, a semi-bituminous coal, which gradually changes, going westward, into a pure bitumi- nous. A similar graduated change from an anthracite to a bitumi- nous coal is found in the coal formation of Wales, in Great Britain, and according to Professor Murchison, in several coal fields in Russia the coal veins which are bituminous at one part of the basin, become anthracite at the other. Lykens' Valley district yields coal of a semi- bituminous or free burning quality. Argillaceous iron ore, both nodular and in seams, is found varying with the coal veins in places through the coal region, and black band or carboniferous iron-stone is found in the Lykens' Valley district. In the middle anthracite region is found white, gray, and red ash coal veins. In Big Mountain a superior vein of red ash coal, seven feet in thickness, which burns very freely and leaves no clinker, is opened with white ash coal veins above and below it. Red ash coal veins are found in other localities in this coal region. Argillaceous iron ore in the nodular form, and in regular strata, appears to be in abundance through this coal region ; and bog ore exists in large beds in various places. Carboniferous iron-stone is likewise found in this region, and may ultimately become an article of great value for smelting purposes. HISTORY OP MINING OPERATIONS. Schuylkill District. — Like every other branch of business, the mining of coal has undergone many striking changes and improve- ments, since its commencement. "We have frequent cause for aston- ishment, while regarding the progress of improvement in every de- partment of busy life ; and although it would seem, standing upon the platform of the present, and taking in the whole perspective of the past, with its numerous shades, that we have really achieved the ne plus ultra of inventive genius ; — still, as the world goes on, new enterprises are opened, new feelings are instilled, and new desires are to be filled : — so that the field for thought and scientific knowledge ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 173 is continually enlarged, and the progress of invention must always be proportionally rapid. When openings were first made for coal in the vicinity of Potts- ville, the shafts were sunk to the depth of from twenty to thirty feet, and the coal hoisted in large vessels, by means of a common wind- lass. As soon as the water became troublesome, which was usually the case after penetrating beyond thirty feet, the shaft was aban- doned, and another sunk, and the same simple process repeated. This mode, however, was soon superseded by drifts (or. openings above water-level, running in with a surface sufficiently inclined to drain off the water). These would be opened at the heads of veins upon the hillsides, and the coal brought out in wheel-barrows ; but FIGURE 51. it was not until 1827 that railways were introduced into mines, and from that period until 1834 drifts were the only mode pursued for mining coal. In the meantime, various experiments had been made for the use of shafts, the principal one of which was the substitution of horse- power and the gin, for the windlass, by which means the miners could clear the water from the shaft with greater facility, and penetrate somewhat farther down on the veins. But with this great improve- ment, as it was then regarded, they were enabled to run down on the vein for but a comparatively short distance, and the coal was, of course, inferior; for experience has since demonstrated that the crop of the coal is never equal to that taken out at lower depths, where the roof and floor have attained the regularity and hardness so neces- sary for effective labor and good coal. At the period to which we have alluded, there was a total and per- fect absence of every convenience which is now deemed necessary for mining operations. The country itself was, we were about to say, uninviting; but such we never could have esteemed it. There 15* 174 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. never was a more grand, picturesque region, beautiful at all seasons grand in all eyes, precious to the man of science, the capitalist, and to the whole world of business. But if it be wild and beautiful now, when jealous art has despoiled it somewhat of its wild aspect; stripped the mountains of their gaudy foliage, and levelled the vene- rable and sturdy forest trees to the earth, with here and there a few remaining, stripped of bark and branches, as if intended for monu- ments to their perished fellows ; what must it not have been when the howls of wild beasts echoed in the solitary depths of the woods ; in the deep ravines and mountain-passes until then unex- plored by man ? The country then, clothed in its rich spring garb, fragrant with its wild-flowers, musical with its numerous streams, majestic with its frowning crags and precipices, in its general range resembled the green ocean " into tempest tossed," and its primitive silence was the sleep of nature, when, like a miser, she had finished burying her treasures ! But what we wished to convey is, that the country at this period was destitute of those conveniences for sustaining life, and for carry- ing on a regular business, which are rightfully looked for by the laborer. The only mode of transporting coal from the mine, was by common wagons, over roads at all seasons bad, and through a country in which, from its mountainous character and wild state, the horse was enabled to accomplish but little, in comparison with what could be done in a level and more improved country. But notwithstanding these difficulties, the work was still pursued, and that most assiduously. The prices commanded by coal afforded but a scanty pittance to the laborers employed, without insuring the least profit to the owner of the lands. Previously, the inhabitants of the country subsisted entirely by their skill in hunting. Every species of game was plenty, and the skins of bears, wolves, wild cats, foxes, &c, as well as the quarters of deers, and birds, were eagerly sought in the country and towns adjacent. The hunters, few in number, lived in rude cabins far from each other, and there was scarcely a path, in the rugged state of the country, by which the steps of the stranger could be directed. All the coal mined anterior to 1818, was mostly sold to blacksmiths in the surrounding coun- try ; for to haul it away for fuel, while wood was still plenty, could not be afforded nor justified by the economist. Although the Schuylkill Navigation, as previously stated, had been ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 175 completed in 1818, its facilities for transporting coal were not of such character as to warrant the mining of any considerable quantity. Having been thrown out of repair, time after time, by freshets, its use could by no means be relied upon, and thus, from 1818 to 1825, the trade, if it may be said to have had existence at all, was so extremely limited and uncertain in its general features and prospects, that little attention was bestowed upon it. The whole extent of the trade of the anthracite regions, from this period to 1824, did not exceed twenty thousand tons. In 1825, (the year following,) this amount was nearly doubled, of which the quantity sent down the Schuylkill was six thousand five hundred tons ; that of the Lehigh twenty-eight thousand one hundred tons, and of the Susquehanna no account has been kept. From this year, therefore, the existence of the Schuylkill trade may be dated — that of the Lehigh having commenced five years previously. The introduction of railways into this region, which occurred in 1827, is, perhaps, one of the most important epochs in its history. The natural arrangement of the country is admirably adapted for grading and laying down railways, and it was on this account that their introduction was more welcome. The coal seams crop out by the sides of the mountains, and the valleys between them, usually affording small streams, allow sufficient descent to convey the loaded cars to the head of navigation. The distinguished credit of having been the first person who erected a railway in this region, is, we believe, assigned to the late Abraham Pott, who constructed one over half a mile in length, leading from his mines, east of Port Carbon, to the navigation at that place. Their subsequent introduction into drifts, by which the cars were drawn in the mines by mules, gave a new impulse to the business, and greatly added to the capacity of each operator. In 1826 the amount shipped was nearly seventeen thousand tons, and in 1827 it was over thirty-one thousand tons. In 1828 it reached forty-seven thousand, in 1829 seventy-nine thousand, 1830 eighty-nine thou- sand, and in 1831 eighty-one thousand tons. During this period coal was being generally used in stoves, in the more populous towns ; and after the grate was introduced into them, which was accomplished more or less successfully between the years 1827 and 1831, the trade began to assume an imposing and gigantic 176 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. attitude. For no sooner had the people become familiar with the pe- culiar properties of the coal, than its vast future importance in the arts and manufactures was readily acknowledged. In 1826 and '27 large accessions had been made to the population and business of the region. The Schuylkill Navigation had been placed in excellent repair, and interruptions in its navigation were no longer experienced. This happy state of affairs continued until 1829, when a momentary pause was made in the trade, but it was a pause prophetic only of still greater triumphs, of busier scenes, and of more active life. It was at this period that scenes of excite- ment, speculation, and daring enterprise were enacted, which sur- prised and startled our good old Commonwealth from its Quaker propriety. Capitalists awoke, as if from a dream, and wondered that they had never before realized the importance of the anthracite trade ! What appeared yesterday but as a fly, now assumed the gi- gantic proportions of an elephant ! The capitalist who, but a few years previously, laughed at the infatuation of the daring pioneers of the coal trade, now coolly ransacked his papers, and cyphered out his available means, and whenever met on the street, his hand and pockets would be filled with plans of towns, of surveys of coal lands, and calculations and specifications of railways, canals, and divers other improvements until now unheard of! The land which yesterday would not have commanded the taxes levied upon it, was now looked upon as " dearer than Plutarch's mine, richer than gold." Sales were made to a large amount, and in an incredibly short space of time, it is estimated that upwards of five millions of dollars had been invested in lands in the Schuylkill coal field alone ! La- borers and mechanics of all kinds, and from all quarters and nations, flocked to the coal region, and found ready and constant employment at the most exorbitant wages. Capitalists, arm-in-arm with confiden- tial advisers, civil engineers, and grave scientific gentlemen, explored every recess, and solemnly contemplated the present and future value and importance of each particular spot. Houses could not be built fast enough, for where nought but bushes and rubbish were seen one day. a smiling village would be discovered on the morrow. Enter- prising carpenters in Philadelphia, and elsewhere along the line of canal, prepared the timber and frame-work of houses, and then placing the material on board a canal boat, would hasten on to the enchanted spot to dedicate it to its future purposes. Thus whole towns. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 177 were arriving in the returning canal boats, and as " they were forced to play the owl," a moonlight night was a god-send to the im- patient proprietoi's, for with the dawning of the morning would be reflected the future glory of the new town, and the restless visages of scores of anxious lessees ! The days of speculation, however, were not terminated in '29 ; and a few words more remain to be said concerning them. Many persons who had purchased lands, moved thither with their families, designing to take up their permanent abode in the region, and pursue the mining business regularly, as they would farming, or any other calling. But, in a majority of cases, the lands were purchased in large tracts, by companies formed for the purpose, and these, as well as many tracts held by single individuals, were leased out to tenants. These joint-stock companies, or those composed of citizens of other States, obtained charters for the mining of coal from the Legislatures of their respective States, and thus evaded the statutes of mortmain in force here ; and the lands owned by them were held by deeds of trust, and were thus used and occupied. But no sooner were compa- nies chartered by the Legislature of this State, than a general law was passed escheating the lands of companies formed under charters not granted by this State, and held without its license and consent. This was done in 1833, when the trade had partially recovered from the speculations of the previous years. It was under such circ*mstances as these that a vast amount of capital had been expended in the region, not only in the improvement of the lands, and the facilities for mining coal, but in the construction of railways and similar improvements, of the most stupendous char- acter. In contemplating these times, though we cannot but laugh at the ludicrous scenes they present, all will admit that they were the indirect and direct means of accomplishing incalculable benefit to the whole country. Nor was it possible, under the circ*mstances, to restrain the fever of speculation. The real value and resources of the lands were comparatively unknown, and in the hands of those who had no intention of " piercing the bowels of the earth, and bringing forth from the caverns of mountains treasures which shall give strength to our hands, and subject all nature to our use and pleasure," a ficti- tious value could not but be placed upon them. Calculations were cunningly made of the number of square yards of coal in an acre and X 178 OFT-HAND SKETCHES. the quantity each acre was capable of yielding, without considering the labor and expense necessary to mine it, or without knowing in fact that it contained coal at all, and exhibiting such calculations, in glaring and bona fide figures, to the bewildered capitalists, land would sell for one hundred dollars an acre to-day ; to-morrow for three hundred, and then for five hundred dollars. And when, at last, the tracts were cut up into small parcels, to suit the means of the pur- chaser, they would presently be esteemed as beautiful locations for towns, and straightway plans were laid out on paper, elegantly printed and colored ; and, finally, the whole would wind up with a sale of " valuable town lots" — lying, perhaps, in the heart of a swamp, a forest, or upon the brow of a mountain. This last opera- tion would frequently prove the "noblest Roman of them all;" for although the purchaser might have paid five hundred dollars per acre for the whole plot, he would realize the whole of that sum on a single " corner-lot," and if he could make five or six hundred lots, there would be no such thing as estimating his profits ! We shall dismiss this subject with a single remark. The speculat- ing mania had . involved hundreds of persons in utter ruin ; and there were few persons of fortune who now ventured, voluntarily and alone, into the mining business. Companies were formed, not only for the purchase of the lands, but also for conducting mining opera- tions upon them ; and it was thus hoped, that by concentrating the lands and business of the region into the hands of a few, whose com- bined capital and influence could silence individual competition, the trade could be made obedient to their wild schemes. Coal had already been universally adopted ; and by withholding supplies when they were absolutely needed, it was thought that it could be made to command from eight to twelve dollars a ton; and then, the price being thus established, another series of " calculations" of the value of each particular acre of coal land, and fresh ground for specula- tions, would be laid open. Advocates for coal companies were con- sequently not lacking, and many were chartered by the Legislature. But the practical experience of those interested in the trade soon awakened a powerful opposition to them, and this feeling has existed from very nearly the commencement of the trade to the present time. It was especially active from 1831 to 1839, during which the trade had thrice fallen off, in the gross amount of the annual product, from the years respectively preceding ; and during the whole of which ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 179 period, the influence of the public journals in the coal regions was directly arrayed against them. The country, through such aid, was happily saved from the calamities which threatened the trade, and which did much, during this period, to retard its annual growth. ANTHRACITE FOR SMELTING IRON. Nothing worthy of special notice occurred in the progress of the anthracite trade, until 1838, 1839, and 1840. It was during this period, that the attention of intelligent and enterprising citizens was called to the practicability of using an- thracite coal for the smelting of iron ore. Dr. "Weisenheimer, of New York, had, in the latter part of 1838, and before similar results had been obtained, or at least promulgated in Europe, secured a patent for smelting iron with anthra- cite and hot blast; but Mr. Crane, having about this time succeeded in a series of experiments in Wales, having in view the same object, is understood to have purchased the claims of Dr. W., which were as follows : First : In the appli- cation of anthracite coal, exclusively or in part, for deoxidating and carbonating iron ore. Second : The application of anthracite coal, exclusively or in part, in combining iron in a metallic state, with a greater quantity of carbon ; if bar- iron, for steel; if pig or cast-iron, for a superior quality, Ac. Third: The smelting or reducing of iron-ore, so deoxidated and carbonated by the applica- tion of anthracite coal as aforesaid, into pig or cast-iron. Fourth : The refining or converting of iron ore, so deoxidated or carbonated by the application of an- thracite coal, as aforesaid, into malleable or bar iron. Fifth : The application of anthracite coal as a fuel, in smelting or reducing iron ore raw or roasted, but not prepared by a separate process of deoxidation and earbonation, as above described, into pig or cast iron. Sixth : Though not claiming an exclusive right of the use of heated air for any kind of fuel, nevertheless he claimed the use of heated air, applied upon and in connection with the said principle and method discovered by him to smelt iron ore in blast furnaces, with anthracite coal, by applying a blast of air in such quantity, velocity and density, or under such pres- sure as the compactness or density, and the continuity of the anthracite coal requires, as above described, &c. As soon as this transfer was effected, Mr. Crane obtained a patent in this country, which differed slightly from Dr. "W.'s. But it was several months anterior to the dates of both these patents that a furnace had been blown in at Mauch Chunk, which used anthracite as fuel, and this enterprise was followed in a short time after by a more extensive and successful one at Pottsville. In consequence of this, and in view of the certainty of litigation, Mr. Crane never insisted upon an observance of his claims by priority of discovery, but, as we are informed, published a card, formally renouncing them. Experiments for using anthracite coal in blast furnaces had been made at Mauch Chunk in 1830, by the Lehigh coal company; and up to the period of 180 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. Mr. Crane's method, vast sums of money had been expended, from time to time* in different parts of Europe, to effect the same object, but every attempt proved unsuccessful. The thing had been almost entirely abandoned as impracticable, when the great secret seems to have been imparted simultaneously in Europe and America — for while Mr. Crane was rejoicing over his triumphs in Wales, three enterprising gentlemen of Reading were repairing and blowing in their furnace at Mauch Chunk — and if not the very one previously abandoned, it was the ground, at least, which had sustained a former defeat ! From a letter, by Mr. Lawthrop, dated at Beaver Meadows, to Prof. Walter R. Johnson, of Philadelphia, we gather the following interesting particulars concerning this first application of anthracite coal for smelting purposes : The experiments, says Mr. L., were made by Messrs. Joseph Baughman, Julius Gruiteau and Henry High, of Reading, in an old furnace which was temporarily fitted up for the purpose. They used about eight per cent, of anthracite, and the result was such as to surprise those who witnessed it, (for it was considered as an impossibility, even by iron masters,) and amply sufficient to encourage those engaged in it to go on. In order, therefore, to test the matter more thor- oughly, they built a furnace on a small scale, near the Mauch Chunk weigh- lock, which was completed during the month of July, 1839. The dimensions, &c, were as follows : stack, 21% feet high, 22 feet square at the base ; boshes, b% feet across ; hearth, 14 by 16 inches in the square, and 4 feet by 9 inches from the dam stone to the back. The blowing apparatus consisted of 2 cylinders, each 6 feet diameter; a receiver, same diameter, and about 2% feet deep; stroke 11 inches — each piston making from 12 to 15 strokes per minute. An overshot water-wheel, diameter 14 feet ; length of bucket, V/ 2 feet ; number of buckets, 36; revolutions per minute, from 12 to 15. The blast was applied August 27th, and the furnace kept in blast until Sep- tember 10th, when they were obliged to stop in consequence of the apparatus for heating the blast proving to be too temporary. Several tons of iron were produced of Nos. 2 and 3 quality. Temperature of the blast did not exceed 200° Fahrenheit — the proportion of anthracite used not remembered. A new and good apparatus for heating the blast was next procured, (at which time Mr. Lowthxop became personally interested in the works,) consisting of 200 feet in length, of cast iron pipes, VA inches thick; it was placed in a brick chamber, at the runnel head, and heated by a flame issuing thence. The blast was again applied about the last of November, 1839, and the furnace worked remarkably well for five weeks, exclusively with anthracite coal ; they were then obliged, for want of ore, to blow out on the 12th of January, 1839. During this experiment, says Mr. L., our doors were open to the public, and we were watched very closely both night and day — for men could hardly believe what they saw with their own eyes, so incredulous was the public in regard to the matter at that time. Some iron masters expressed themselves astonished, that a furnace could work whilst using unburnt, unwashed, frozen ore, such as was put into our furnace. The amount of iron produced was about 114 tons pet ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 181 day, when working best, of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 quality— the temperature of the blast being still about 400° Fahrenheit The following season the hearth was enlarged to 19 by 21 inches, and 5 feet 3 inches from the dam stone to the back of hearth ,• and on July 26th, the fur- nace was again put in blast, and continued in blast until December, 1840, a few days after the dissolution of the firm, when it was blown out in good order. For about three months no other kind than anthracite was used, and the product was about 100 tons of iron, good Nos. 1, 2, and 3 quality. When working best, the furnace produced about two tons per day. Temperature of the blast was from 400 to 600° Fahrenheit. The following ores were used: "pipe" ore, from Miller's mine, near Allen- town ; " brown hematite," commonly called top mine, or iron-face ore ; " rock" ore, from Dickerson's mine, in New Jersey; and "Williams township" ore, in Northampton county. The last mentioned ore produced a very strong iron, and when it is considered that these experiments were conducted under circum- stances wholly unfavorable, and that the furnace and machinery were thor- oughly defective, the results obtained may be viewed as being in the highest degree satisfactory. In December, 1840, this furnace was blown out, the work discontinued, and the firm dissolved. The furnace at Pottsville having at this time been in ope- ration, and its performances having been decidedly superior, the credit of first successfully introducing anthracite coal for smelting purposes has been very justly claimed by the citizens of that place. For although the furnace at "Mauch Chunk had overcome many difficulties, its abandonment so soon was by many regarded as prima facia evidence of failure — while the other has continued in operation, with short intervals, to a very recent period. It is still standing, and under a favorable aspect of the iron market, might probably be again worked with profit. The Pottsville furnace was completed, and put in blast on the 26th of October, 1839, under the direction of the celebrated Mr. Perry. This gentleman, who had frequently visited Mr. Crane in Wales, and was familiar with the process adopted by him, declared that the performances of this furnace more than equalled those obtained by that gentleman. They were, therefore, esteemed as in the highest degree successful, and an intelligent iron master, (Hon. Dr. Bckert,) who had observed its workings, declared that it had triumphed over difficulties and accidents, during the first fortnight of its existence, which would have chilled up any charcoal works over and over again ! The hearth was tapped night and morning, and the yield at each time varied from sixty to sixty- three pigs, equal to about three tons of metal. It is an all-important fact, that in charging the stack, nothing but pure anthracite coal and iron ore was used. Not a scrap of old metal, wood or charcoal was used, except for the mere pur- pose of first ignition. The erection of this furnace was mainly accomplished through the efforts of Burd Patterson, Esq., who, from the earliest history of this region, has been 16 182 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. identified with every measure of its onward progress. He is still a resident of Pottsville, and, as heretofore, stands connected with all new and praiseworthy enterprises. In January, 1840, the furnace having now performed successfully for three months, a deputation, consisting of the late Nicholas Biddle, Thomas Biddle, Isaac Lea, Jesse Richards, J. M. Sanderson, and Dr. B. Kugler, visited Potts- ville to inspect the iron-works, and to award a prize of five thousand dollars, subscribed by certain influential citizens of Pennsylvania, to be presented to the individual who would, within a specified time, succeed in smelting a certain amount of iron ore, with anthracite coal, &c. This prize was accordingly awarded to the proprietor of the Pottsville furnace, and therefore settles the question as to the person and place entitled to the credit of having first, suc- ceeded in this important enterprise. The celebration of this event was a happy and brilliant affair, and it was not long ere the Union was filled with the importance of the achievement thus commemorated. The committee were invited to a dinner at the Mount Carbon House, and a toast, complimental to the distinguished gentlemen composing it, having been offered, Mr. N. Biddle responded to it in behalf of his colleagues, in a speech of great practical learning and profound eloquence, at the conclu- sion of which he offered the following toast : " Old Pennsylvania — Her sons, like her soil, a rough outside, but solid stuff within; plenty of coal to warm her friends, plenty of iron to cool her enemies." The Pottsville Furnace was soon followed by another in the vicinity, called the Valley Furnace. This was put in blast, September 17, 1841, and "succeeded admirably from the first moment of its action." It used the ore found upon the ground. At the latter end of 1842, after the passage of the tariff act of that year, an- thracite furnaces began very rapidly to multiply. In the following year they were found in full blast, and others going into operation, in almost every county in the State, where coal and iron ore were at all accessible. The number con- tinued annually to increase, at an astonishing rate, until the passage of the present tariff law, which has thus far had a very disastrous effect upon this branch of American industry. It will not be long, however, before we recover all the strength that has been lost or impaired during the last few years, for such is the enterprise of our citizens that they will produce, notwithstanding the competition of their British rivals. Until the year 1740, iron was made in England almost exclusively with char- coal, and prior to that period none of the iron stones of the coal region were used ; but as soon as the iron manufacturers found it necessary to locate them- selves in the coal region for the purpose of being convenient to the new kind of fuel they were about to adopt, they found the necessity of searching for ore nearer their works than the magnetic ores that they had been in the habit of using were ; the result was, that an abundance of excellent ore was dis- ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 183 covered in the coal regions in the immediate vicinity of their works, and al- though it did not yield so high a per centage of iron as the magnetic ores, they found it more profitable than transporting richer ores from a distance. With regard to this region, a like result has been experienced ; for it was not until after the erection of the furnace at this place, that any investigations had been instituted as to whether iron ore was to be obtained or not. ' But no sooner had explorations commenced than new and large deposits of iron ore were found daily, and the ore pronounced to be of an excellent quality. Mr. Benj. Perry, the intelligent anthracite founder, has visited several of these mines, and gave it as his opinion that any number of furnaces could be supplied with ore for an indefinite time. In comparing the ores of this country with those of England and "Wales, we find the average richness to be nearly the same; but we have a decided and important advantage in the thickness of the veins, many of which being upwards of three feet thick, and from that down to six inches. The average richness of the ores taken from the coal regions of England and Wales, is about 33 per cent. The average richness of eight specimens of ore, taken from the Pottsville coal region, was 33'18 of metallic ore. These specimens were analysed under the direction of Prof. Sogers, late State Geologist — some of them yield- ing 39, 38, and 37 per cent, and all taken from different veins. Prof. R. in his fourth annual report to the Legislature of this State, speaking of these ores, says : " Especial care has been taken to submit to chemical examination, such specimens only as represent the average character of their respective beds — choosing those freshly opened in the mines, or in some deep excavation, and rejecting, as far as possible, samples gathered from the outcrop, or found loose on the surface : as they invariably contain too high a per centage to prove a fair criterion," &c. * The presence of inexhaustible supplies of coal and iron ore, suggests an im- portant advantage in the comparatively limited capital necessary to carry on iron works. For while iron masters in other sections of country are compelled, at all seasons, to keep on hand a large supply of coal and ore, no such necessity would exist here. Supplies could be procured in small quantities, as desired, for immediate use, and the necessity of buying large quantities at high imces, is thus entirely overcome. The same argument holds good, as regards means of transportation, and speedy and cheap access to market. While iron works at many places have no avenue to market during the winter, and are consequently compelled to retain a large stock of their manufactured product on hand — the manufacturer here could send it to market in such quantities, and at such times as the demand might justify. We may next consider the cheapness of the fuel, as well as of the ores used. For the former, the fine refuse coal that has been crowding our mines and land- ings for years past, is now brought into use for generating steam and heating the blast, and besides answering admirably the purpose, it is afforded free of charge, and delivered to the furnace by the coal operators, so anxious are they 184 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. to get rid of the large quantities annually accumulated about their premises, This, it will be granted, is an important consideration. There is another consideration, with regard to those locations where the ad- vantages, in some instances, consist merely or principally in being in the im- mediate vicinity of the ore. After the smelting of the ore into pig metal is accomplished, no more ore is required; but in the process of making bar-iron, about four tons of coal are necessary to manufacture one ton of the latter, so that, independent of the saving in the cost of making pig metal in the coal region, the saving in converting it into bar-iron, at a large rolling mill, would be immense. The middle anthracite region, as we are assured by our friend, William F. Roberts, holds out inducements of the most favorable character for the invest- ment of capital, in all the branches of iron making and iron manufactures. The coal is of superior quality, and may be mined at very low rates. Its iron ore is rich and in abundance, while it has other important facilities for iron-making establishments to operate with the greatest economy and profit. The lands of the Dauphin Coal Company, we may add, are also admirably calculated to sustain extensive iron establishments. Taking in view the admi- rable outlets to market, and the peculiar character of the coal, and richness of the iron ore, they may be said to enjoy unequalled advantages for this branch of manufactures. PROCESSES OP MINING COAL. We shall now resume the subject of mining, and briefly allude to some of the principal improvements lately introduced. After the introduction of railways, there seems to have been little done in the way of improvements, to facilitate the operation of mining. But without tracing, in regular order, the introduction of each new feature, as the present is contradistinguished from the past, we shall at once proceed to explain the modus operandi of mining, as observed in the present day. In the first place, it may be necessary to premise that the range of all the coal veins in the Schuylkill basin is east and west, converging to the eastward, and diverging westward, with such slight variation from the general rule, as not to be worthy of notice. The dip of the veins is to the south : and their angle of inclination from the horizon varies from 30° to 40° parallel, in all cases, with the surrounding strata. From 1833 the number of operations below water-level has annually increased, in a regular per centage with the increase of the trade. As they are the most extensive, and would, perhaps, prove most interesting to the stranger, we shall now describe the minutiae of which they are comprised. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 185 FIG. 52. — VIEW OF A COAL SLOPE. When a vein of coal is being -worked below water-level, a steam- engine and pumps are necessary to raise up the accumulated water in the mine ; for below water-level means, simply, that the coal is being mined at some point below the bed of the adjacent river, creek, or rivulet. The first step to be taken at the commencement of an ope- ration of this kind, is to ascertain where the vein crops out to the sur- face, or so near to the surface as to be easily found, from a previous knowledge of the range of the vein. A favorable location must then be selected, twenty or thirty feet to the northward of the crop of the vein, for the location of a stationary steam-engine. This must be where a sufficiency of water can be had for the supply of the steam- boilers ; and if not near to a main railroad, prudence will dictate that it must be so situated that a branch or lateral road can be laid down near the place where the engine is to be erected. The descent into the mine is called a Slope, and thus those mines below water-level, called Slopes, are contradistinguished from those above water-level, called Drifts. Engines erected for the purpose of hoisting the coal up the Slope, and pumping the water out of the mine, are usually of the capacity of from forty, fifty, and sixty horse-power, nearly all 16* Y 186 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. horizontal high-pressure, and working with a slide-valve. They are generally built in a very neat, simple, as well as a strong and efficient manner, and invariably by the mechanics of the coal region. The location of the engine being determined upon, a slope, or in- clined plane, must be driven down in the vein, and consequently at the same angle of inclination. The thickness of the vein is usually excavated, and the slope must be sufficiently wide to admit of two railway tracks, from thirty-six to forty inches wide each, to be laid down ; with room, also, for the pumps on one side, (and sometimes both sides) and travelling road on the other side (or sometimes between FIG. 53. — GROUND-PLAN OF A COAL MINE. the two railway tracks) for the miners and laborers — the whole width of the slope being usually from eighteen to twenty-two feet. The slope is driven down about two hundred feet for the first level, at the bottom of which the gangways are commenced, running at right- angles from the slope, east and west in the vein, and are continued at ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 187 distances discretionary with, the operator, or to the extremity of his mining limits. The slope and gangways form a capital T. The gang- ways are frequently driven one, two, or three miles, with turnouts at intervals for trains to pass each other. They are made about seven feet high, and sufficiently wide to admit a railroad track to be laid down, on which a well loaded car, having from one to two tons of coal, may pass freely. (Fig. 53. The gangways are indicated by the letter c, on the left.) The cars are hauled to and fro by horses or mules ; the latter being preferred, as well because of their diminutive size as for their stamina. The gangways being ^driven in a sufficient distance from the bottom of the slope, the next thing is to commence digging out or mining the coal. The coal in the vein is left undisturbed on each side of the slope to a distance of thirty or forty feet east and west, and extending all the way up the surface ; the coal thus left, in mining phraseology, is called pillars, and is suffered to remain for the purpose of strengthening or supporting the slope ; as in an extensive mine and in a good vein its use may be required for a great number of years. A pillar of coal of some twenty feet in width is also left all along the upper side of the gangway ; and above this pillar, and up to the surface, all the coal is worked out. The plan of working adopted by miners is this : two miners and a laborer generally work a-breast, (the excavated squares, indicated by the letter b, are breasts where the coal is being worked out,) like the swarth of a cradler in the har- vest field, usually from thirty, to forty feet in width from the pillar above the gangway up to the surface. They make an opening from the gangway through the pillar above, about where the centre of the breast will be, of four or five feet wide, for a shute ; after which the full extent of the breast is opened out, and the shute continued up the centre, down which the coal slides into a car in the gangway. When the coal is dug out, the roof is supported by props of Umber, placed at a distance from each other, varying from six to eight or ten feet, as the roof may be found to be substantial or indifferent. The seams of coal vary from two to twenty-five feet in thickness, (rarely exceeding the latter figure). Those of from six to ten feet are con- sidered best, as they can be worked with greater facility and profit. They can be so propped and roofed as to enable the miner to take out every particle of coal, without the slightest danger of accident ; while those of greater thickness must be worked in chambers, and large pillars of coal left standing to support the roof; and even then 188 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. the miner is exposed to danger from the detached pieces falling down continually. From ten to fifty of these breasts are worked simultaneously up to the surface ; after which, if the gangway is far enough extended, new ones are commenced, and the same operation repeated, until all the coal on that level is worked out. When this is done, the slope must again he driven down some two or three hundred feet ; gangways again opened, railways laid down, and the same process of mining the coal continued. And thus the miner gradually gets deeper and deeper into the bowels of the earth, and to reward his industry and perseverance, nature has provided the purest and best coal low down, so that the farther down he ventures, the better and richer becomes his reward ! The deeper the mine, however, the more difficulty is experienced in keeping the works properly supplied with fresh and wholesome air ; and nothing but long practical experience can furnish a thorough knowledge of this very important branch of the mining business. We shall reserve some remarks which we intend to offer on this subject, for the conclusion of the present article. Going now to the shutes in the gangway, we find cars loaded with coal. A mule, which is in most cases used, will draw three or four of these loaded cars to the foot of the slope, where they are left, and empty cars hauled back to be loaded. One of the loaded cars is then pushed upon a turning platform, by a person stationed there for that purpose ; he places the car fairly for the railroad track in the slope, attaches the chain to it, draws the pull of the bell as a signal to in- form those above that " all is ready," and it is hoisted up the slope by the engine, while an empty car descends, at the same time, on the other track. The car of coal being now brought to the top, it is un- hitched, pushed aside, and an empty car pushed into its place, hooked to the chain, and, a loaded car being now attached on the other track, the bell is again rung, and the empty car descends and the loaded one ascends, as before. This hoisting and lowering of cars is always going on with despatch during the day-time, and sometimes during the whole night, there being often two sets of hands and miners, one for the day and the other for the night. The time usually occupied for bringing up a car is about one minute, which includes attaching to and detaching the car from the chain, &c. Where from one to two hundred tons of coal are prepared and shipped daily, (besides the ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 189 refuse and accumulated rubbish of the mine, which must be brought up,) it will be seen that it forms one of the most important features in mining. The next feature in mining is that of preparing the coal for market, that is, cleaning it from the slate and earthy matter that sometimes is mixed with it, and breaking it in suitable sizes for the various pur- poses required. The coal dirt, consisting of small particles of coal PIG. 54. — COAL BREAKER. and slate, besides various kinds of earthy matter excavated in the mine, is hauled out and deposited in heaps along the sides of the hills, where it sometimes forms large elevations. The loaded coal cars, which are here represented as coming from a drift, or a mine above water-level, are seen on the left, running, by a slight inclination, to the Coal Breaker, which is represented in fig. 54. To fully retain the idea, the loaded cars are seen coming out of the mine, and going directly to the Breaker works. The Breaker machinery is, of course, erected as near to the mouth of the mine as- local circ*mstances will admit, and considerable elevation is necessary in order to break and prepare the coal at as little expense as possible. The side of a hill is therefore preferred, as a railroad to conduct the coal from the mouth of the mine to the Breaker can easily be constructed, and will thus avoid the expense of ropes for an inclined-plane, upon which to haul up the loaded cars. The Breakers are all turned by steam, with but a few exceptions, where water is at hand. An engine of twelve or fifteen horse-power 190 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. is requisite for driving the Breaker, and turning the circular screens, and they are built on the same plan as the larger engines used at Slopes for hoisting up the cars and pumping out the water. Th» Breaker-rollers are of cast-iron, placed in very strong, compact frame- work, and turned by means of a leather belt and gearing-wheels. The most approved rollers are those perforated between the teeth, being an improvement on the former solid periphery-rollers originally invented, inasmuch as there is thus less solid surface presented to the coal in breaking, and, consequently, less crushing and wastage of the coal. The loaded car being brought to the head of the Breaker, it is dumped, and the coal falls into a small shute, from which it flows into the Breaker. The coal thus passes between the revolving rollers, whose 'projecting teeth break it into pieces of all sizes. From the rollers, the broken coal falls into screens, which also revolve, and having four or five sections of network of different sizes, the different sizes of the coal are thus assorted, falling out of the interstices of the screen into shutes below, which are indicated in fig. 54, as hanging directly over the cars. The coal screen was one of the most important inventions of the day. Previously to the introduction of Breakers, the coal was screened by hand. The screen was from 5 to 8 feet long, and from If to 2-J feet in diameter, and placed in a frame, slightly inclined. As the coal entered the more elevated end, the screen was turned round by hand, like a grindstone. When Breakers were introduced, the screens, as previously, were constructed of bar iron, riveted on frame work. But great trouble and expense were experienced, from their liability to break, and the difficulty of repairing them, the whole work being necessarily stopped until this was accomplished. Attention was soon attracted to the subject, and it was not long ere mechanical ingenuity suggested a remedy. A machine was invented by a citizen of Pottsville, by which the largest and thickest wire is wrought into shape suitable for weaving, which is done by very heavy and improved machinery. Wire as thick as an ordinary ram-rod is crimped by this process, which merely consists of a heavy hammer, suspended in frame-work, which is made to fall upon the wire, placed under it, upon a surface allowing it to receive the particular bend desired, after which it is woven into frames of about three feet square. These frames are then placed over a large wooden cylinder, and rounded, when two or more sections are pointed and riveted together, which completes their circular form. The screen, thus complete, is removed ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION 191 from the bench, and joined with another of the same dimensions, but of larger or smaller net-work. These screens are remarkably dura- ble, and are not the least feature which has tended to bring coal Breakers into universal use. This process for crimping thick iron wire has introduced several new and important objects of manufacture, such as iron wire portable bedsteads, fences and ornamental railings, chairs, sofas, &c. q5v3 c&> cjts caj cX-> cj£> the flame would be extinguished, because there was nothing to support combustion ; the gas itself would take fire. If there were three parts of atmospheric air and one of gas, it began to be faintly explosive ; and, when once explosive, it would set fire to other gas, which was too pure to explode. When the gas was as one to six, it became very explosive, and continued so until the proportions were one to ten, when it became less explosive. The danger, however, was not destroyed until the mixture became weaker than one part of gas to fourteen of air ; after that it merely enlarged the flame of any light which might be brought into it, 17* 198 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. and. turned it blue. The miner was thus enabled, by the lengthening of the flame of his light, and its appearance, to tell whether he was in a dangerous part of the mine, and the amount of gas that might be present in the atmosphere. If the flame reached to a certain height, the practical miner could tell at once how nearly the atmosphere approached an explosive combination ; and with some other similar points affecting his safety, and that of his fellow-workmen, long habit had made him familiar. There were several considerations of importance connected with these explo- sive admixtures of gas and air; as, for instance, the effect produced by the breathing of a number of men, which very much lessened the danger, by altering the proportions of nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere ; and thus one portion of the mine would be less explosive than another, though both might contain the same proportion of carburetted hydrogen. Every part of the mine which was capable of being worked, should, in all cases, be visited with guarded lights, before other lights were allowed to be taken ; and the state of the mine should always be well ascertained before open lights are used. There was also a certain amount of danger in going into some portions of a fiery mine ; and, until within the last thirty years, the only means of obtaining any degree of light in such cases, was by the use of an apparatus called the steel-mill. This was a very ingenious contrivance, by which a train of sparks was produced by pressing a flint against a revolving plate of steel, and this afforded sufficient light to move about, but not enough to work by. It was, moreover, a dangerous contrivance, for, every now and then, there could be no -doubt, a flame was produced sufficient to explode gas under certain cir- c*mstances, and particularly if defiant gas should be present, which, however, did not often happen to be the case in English mines. About thirty years ago, a great number of serious accidents occurred in the mines of the north of England, following each other in alarmingly rapid succes- sion. Very many lives were lost, and the public attention was much directed to the question whether or not some improvement could be discovered in the way of lighting the mines. Sir Humphrey Davy, then in the zenith of his reputa- tion, was applied to by Mr. Buddie, a well known colliery viewer of that day, and invited to turn his attention to the subject. Humboldt had before attempted to overcome this difficulty ; but his contrivance was only partially useful for visit- ing dangerous mines, as it would not burn longer than half an hour, the flame being supported by a reservoir of atmospheric air within the lamp. Dr. Clanny improved this lamp, admitting the external air freely in cases when it was used in an explosive state ; but this lamp was practically useless, as the explosions which took place inside it soon put out the light. The learned lecturer then proceeded to explain Sir. H. Davy's invention — the safety-lamp, figure 57. Its principle was founded upon the discovery, that the explosion of the mixture in question did not pass through small tubes ; and after numerous experiments, Sir. Humphrey Davy found that the length of the tubes was of no consequence, but that wire gauze, the apertures being of ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 199 the proper dimensions, answered the same purpose. By this means all necessity for an exterior glass was got rid of, and the new lamp might be carried into the most explosive ad- mixtures without danger. Such was the Davy lamp ; and he believed that, as it was the first, it was also by far the best real safety lamp that had been invented. It was, per- haps, not perfect, judging only by experiment, but it was decidedly the best for all practical purposes, as it was more manageable than any other, and not so easily put out of order. The gauze usually employed was made of iron wire, and it had seven hundred and eighty-four holes to the square inch. Sir Davy, having perfected his lamp, went down to the New Castle coal field, and with Mr. Riddle, traversed with impunity some of the most dangerous parts of the Ben- sham seam, at that time the most fiery known. The Davy lamp had been used with great success ever since, and though some accidents had occurred under circ*mstances in which no lights but those of Davy lamps were present, it was as safe as any such instrument could be. The superiority of this lamp over more recent inventions consisted in its pro- ducing a greater quantity of light, and being more portable with at least as much safety. Mr. George Stephenson, the engineer, had also invented a lamp, which was called a " Geordie," after the name of the inventor. It was, however, merely a modification of the Davy lamp, by the addition of a glass tube, which answered the double purpose of increasing the light and keeping the flame steady, by shielding it from currents of air. This, perhaps, gave it additional safety while perfect, as it was possible to drive an explosion of common street gas through the gauze of a Davy lamp. The glass, however, was liable to be broken, and then the instrument became a large and somewhat dangerous "Davy." In some of the Belgian mines a lamp called " the Muesseler lamp," was in use, but it was a very complicated affair, and for that purpose was inferior to Sir H. Davy's invention. No doubt it was safer theoretically, as by it the flame was extinguished the moment the lamp was taken into a dangerous atmosphere ; but this very much lessened its utility, the main point being that the lamp shall give light with safety under such cir- c*mstances. The Davy lamp, with care, might be taken anywhere. He (the lecturer) had himself been in every description of atmosphere, and he had often seen explosions take place inside the Davy lamp by which he was lighted. This, indeed, was a circ*mstance which happened constantly to every viewer, over-man, and Davy-man in the New Castle coal field. The true danger of the Davy lamp was one that would apply equally to any other, and it arose from the fact, that its constant use made the workmen careless, and the more it was used, therefore, the greater chance was there of accidents. The learned lecturer fig. 57. 200 OFF- II AND SKETCHES. here exhibited a printed placard, setting forth the regulations which were adopted in several collieries in respect to Davy lamps, the most important being that which enacted that no man should be allowed to use his Davy lamp until it had been examined carefully by the Davy-man, and pronounced perfectly clean and in good order, nor until it was securely locked, so that the workman could not take it to pieces, and expose the flame in an unguarded manner. AVith regard to actual accidents, the professor remarked that he should not say much beyond placing before them the circ*mstances of a few of the most disastrous, which would serve to explain the nature of the results of the ex- plosions of which he had explained the cause. The most important, then, that lie should mention, occurred in the Haswell colliery, on the 28th September, 1844, when ninety-five lives were lost; and the next was that at the Jarrow Pit, on the 3d of August, 1845, when forty-one persons were killed. In the same year thirty-six lives were lost at Killingworth ; and in 1S46, nineteen at Oldbury and thirty-six at Risca. By these accidents occurring within a period of little more than two years, upwards of "two hundred persons lost their lives; and he had grouped these accidents together in order to give an idea of the extent to which they occurred. There were, then, two hundred lives lost in two years, in working coal mines, from accidents which, in the opinion of the juries who held inquests on the unfortunate sufferers, could not possibly have been pre- vented — the mines being in every case, except, perhaps, in that of the least considerable, in good condition at the time. In the first of these accidents, that of the Haswell colliery, there were under ground at the time of the accident ninety-nine persons, of whom four only escaped. It was an important consideration (which also applied to other acci- dents), whether it was absolutely unavoidable, the catastrophe having occurred, that all these people should be killed. It might be that the whole matter was be- yond human control, as in the case of a shipwreck. If we crossed the sea, the vessel, being made by human hands, was liable to accidents which might hap- pen from stress of weather, which no one could help ; or from carelessness, in respect of which some one would be culpable. If everything were done to ren- der the vessel seaworthy, there would be no blame attaching in respect to its condition, though it should be wrecked in a storm ; but if the vessel were sent to sea in an unsafe condition, there was blame. Just so was it with regard to mines ; if the mine were in as good a condition as science, and the adoption of the best plans could make it, no blame might be attributed to any one for an unforeseen accident. But if it were possible so to manage the mine as to lessen the chance of accident, (he did not believe accidents could be entirely prevented) ; and if that were not done, then there would be blame. The sea must be crossed, despite of shipwrecks , and coal must be had, let it cost what it might ; the point was to get it under the most favorable circ*mstances. In the case of each acci- dent, therefore, it was important to consider whether everything was done by way of prevention and palliation which could be done. In the case before them, that of the Haswell colliery, the accident occurred in a part of the mine where ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 201 the pillars had been removed, and the workmen were taking away the props. This was always a delicate operation, because the props being removed, the roof fell, and the accumulations of gas were disturbed, and often shifted. Before proceeding further with the particulars of this melancholy accident, it would be necessary to mention the effect of an explosion upon the atmosphere. The car- buretted hydrogen, when exploded, became decomposed ; the oxygen in the at- mosphere mixed with the hydrogen and formed water, and nothing was left to breathe but pure carbonic acid gas. This was a most poisonous gas, and produced instant death by choking. At least, insensibility was instantaneous; and, although in such cases, when measures were taken immediately, recovery had taken place, death was generally inevitable. The result of an explosion, there- fore, was to turn the atmosphere into pure carbonic acid gas ; and every man in that district of the mine, in which the accident occurred, was doomed to certain death. The Haswell mine was divided into three great divisions, or three pan- nel workings ; the explosion took place in the middle division, and thirty or forty persons, far removed from the scene of the accident, in another pannel, were poisoned by the after-damp. This could not have occurred had the ventil- lation of each pannel been as distinct as it might have been ; and — he was, there- fore, bound to say — as it ought to have been. The explosion at the Jarrow Pit, in August, 1845, by which forty-one persons were killed, was another instance where such a large destruction of human life was occasioned by the absence of two shafts ; for the means of ventillation at the only one being destroyed by the accident, there was no means of restoring it previously to the mischief being done. Another interesting case occurred in the Killingworth colliery in 1845, which was the result of a fault. On one side of the district there was a long stone drift, at right angles to the main rolley-way of the pannel, in which the men were working; a fault was reached, and this gallery not prosecuted beyond it. The chief object was to drive through a mass of coal in order to get the ventillation completed, and for this purpose they were at work day and night. The fault was pricked in the course of the work in a succession of places, up to two or three days before the accident, which took place on a Thursday, without any unusual presence of gas being observed. On the "Wednesday the fault was once more pricked, and no gas came out. On Thursday, one set of men had performed their allotted portion of work, and about two hours afterwards another gang of workmen descended ; and it is singular that, though the gallery was considered so far dangerous that the men were working with Davy lamps, a boy was allowed to precede them with an open candle — a piece of carelessness most inexcusable, and for which they paid with their lives; before they reached the spot where the workings were, an explosion took place, and every person in the mine perished. Some idea of the force of these explosions might be deduced from the fact that on this occasion, a stopping consisting of thirty-six feet of rough materials, with an inch and a half brick wall on either side, was blown to pieces. In another instance, at the Jarrow mine, an accident happened, and on examining the mine afterwards, a cavity was found, in which there had been probably about 2A 202 OFT-HAND SKETCHES. two hundred cubic feet of gas in a very condensed state, and the side of the cavity being reduced by the working, it had given away, and let out the whole, which exploded with irresistible force. This was a kind of accident to which the miners were constantly liable, and which no vigilance could foresee or prevent. Accidents, and all their particulars, ought always to be recorded, and they could not be discussed too much. It was quite clear that, although it was impossible to avoid accidents, the risk was greatly diminished by good and effective systems of ventillation, and by unceasing care in the use of lights. In continuation of this subject, we present the following, principally condensed from the work of the late Mr. Taylor, entitled " Statistics of Coal." The workmen of the Crouzot mine descended one morn- ing, the one following the other, in rotation, into a shaft below, in which carbonic acid had accumulated during the night. Arrived at the level of -the " bain," at a few yards from the bottom of the pit, the first fell, struck with asphyxia, without having time to utter a cry ; the second followed immediately ; the third saw his comrades pros- trated on the ground, almost within reach of his arm ; he stooped to seize them, and fell himself; another quickly shared the same fate, in his desire to save the others, and the catastrophe would not have been arrested had not the fifth been an experienced master miner, who obliged those who followed him to re-ascend. The gases which result from the subterranean decomposition of the coal, have, besides carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, azote, sulphurous acid, and the carburets of hydrogen, which have a special odour. Before the coal takes fire, the interior air is already heavy and heated by the gaseous disengagements which are the precursors of ignition. As quickly as these symptoms are remarked, the coals already mined should be raised, and we should isolate from the sur- rounding air the region or the crevices which enclose the fire ; em- ploying at this work the laborers whose organization is known to be the best adapted to support the deleterious influence of these gases. Azote, or nitrogen gas, is much less to be dreaded than the carbonic acid ; because its action upon the animal economy is less energetic ; besides, its production can only take place by the absorption of oxy- gen from the air, and it does not naturally exist in the fissures or cavities of the rocks. It has, then, no spontaneous disengagement ; but if we penetrate into the works which have been a long time abandoned, and where there has been combustion, the azote will occupy, in consequence of its lightness, the higher parts of the exca- ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 203 vations, while the carbonic acid will occupy the lower parts ; the res- pirable air forming the intermediate zone. Azote is found isolated in certain mines, where there exists pyrites in a state of decomposi- tion ; the sulphurets changing into sulphates, absorb the oxygen and isolate the azote ; the sulphuret of iron is, in this respect, the most active agent. Azote manifests itself by the red color of the flames of the lamps, which ends by extinction ; it renders respiration difficult, produces a heaviness of the head, and a hissing or singing in the ears, which seems to indicate a mode of action different from that of carbonic acid. The ordinary lamp of the miner is extinguished when the air con- tains no more than fifteen per cent, of oxygen ; [the atmospheric air is composed of twenty-one per cent, of oxygen and seventy-nine per cent, of azote,] it is also at this proportion of eighty-five per cent, of azote that asphyxia or suffocation is caused. Proto-carbonated hydrogen, or inflammable air, designated by the French and Belgian miners under the name of grisou, is, of all the gases, the most dangerous ; that which occasions the greatest num- ber of accidents, not by asphyxia, which it can nevertheless produce when it is not mixed with at least twice its volume of air, but for its property of igniting when in contact with lighted flames, and of exploding when it is mixed, in certain proportions, with atmos- pheric air. The grisou is more abundant in the fat and friable coals, than in the dry and meagre coals ; it particularly disengages itself in the crushed places, iboulements, in the recent stalls whose surfaces are laid bare, and that so vigorously as often to decripitate small scales of coal and produce a slight rustling noise. The fissures or fractures of the coal, and even the clefts of the roof or the floor, give sometimes outlets to soufflards, or jets of gas. The action of this gas upon the flame of the lamps is the most certain guide in ascertaining its pres- ence and proportion. The flame dilates, elongates, and takes a bluish tint, which can readily be distinguished by placing the hand between the eye and the flame, so that only the top of it can be seen. As soon as the proportion is equal to one-twelfth part of the ambient air, the mixture is explosive, and if a lamp be carried, it will produce a detonation proportionate to the volume of the mixture. "When, therefore, a miner perceives at the top of the flame of his lamp the 204 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. bluish nimbus which decides the presence of the fire-damp, he ought to retire, either holding his light very low or even to extinguish it. The chemical effects of an explosion are the direct production of the vapors of water and carbonic acid, and the separation of azote. The physical effects are, a violent dilatation of gas and of the sur- rounding air, followed by a reaction through contraction. The work- men who are exposed to this explosive atmosphere are burned, and the fire is even capable of communicating to the wood work or to the coal ; the wind produced by the expansion is so great that, even at considerable distance from the site of , explosion, the laborers are thrown down, or projected against the sides of the excavations. The walls and timbering are shaken and broken, and crushing or falling down is produced. These destructive effects can be propa- gated even at the mouths of the pits, from which are projected frag- ments of wood and rocks, accompanied by a thick tempest of coal in the form of dust. The evil rests not there ; considerable quantities of carbonic acid and azote, produced by the combustion of the gas, become stationary in the works, and cause those who have escaped by the immediate action of the explosion to perish by suffocation. The ventillating currents suddenly arrested by this perturbation, are now much more difficult to re-establish, because the doors which served to regulate them are partly destroyed; the fires are extinguished, and often even the machines fixed at the mouths of the shafts to regulate the cur- rents are damaged and displaced to such an extent, that it becomes impossible to convey any help to the bottom of the works. THE MINER'S DOOM. 'Twas evening, and a sweeter balm on earth was never shed, - The sun lay in his gorgeous pomp on ocean's heaving bed, The sky was clad in bright array, too beautiful to last, For night, like envy, scowling came, and all the scene o'ercast, 'Tis thus with hope — 'tis thus with life, when sunny dreams appear, The infant leaves the cradle-couch to slumber on a bier ; The rainbow of our cherished love, we see in beauty's eye, That glows with all its mingled hues, alas ! to fade and die ! 'Tis dark, still night — the sultry air scarce moves a leaf or flower ; The aspen, trembling, fears to stir, in such a silent hour ; The footsteps of the timid hare, distinctly may be heard Between the pauses of the song of night's portentous bird — ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 205 And in so drear a moment, plods the miner to his toil, Compelled refreshing sleep to leave, for labor's hardest moil : By fate's rude hand, the dream of peace is broken and destroyed — The savage beast his rest can take, but man must be denied ! And why this sacrifice of rest ? — did not the Maker plan The darksome hours for gentle sleep, the day for work by man ? Yes — but the mighty gods of earth are wiser in their laws — TJiey hold themselves with pride to be their Creator's first great cause. The miner hath his work begun, and busy strokes resound, Warm drops of sweat are falling fast — the coal lies piled around. And what a sight of slavery ! in narrow seams compressed Are seen the prostrate forms of men to hew on back and breast, Fainting with her.t, with dust begrimed, their meagre faces see, By glimmering lamps that serve to show their looks of misery. And oft the hard swollen hand is raised to wipe the forehead dews ; He breathes a sigh for labor's close, and then his toil renews. And manly hearts are throbbing there — and visions in that mind Float o'er the young and sanguine soul, like stars that rain and shine. Amid the dreariness that dwells within the cavern's gloom, Age looks to youth to solace him — waits for his fruits to bloom. Behold! there is a careless face bent from yon cabined nook; Hope you may read in his bright eye — there's future in his look ; Oh, blight not then the fairy flower, 'tis heartless to destroy The only pleasure mortals know — anticipated joy ! Oh, God ! what flickering flame is this ? — see, see again its glare ! Dancing around the wiry lamp, like meteors of the air. Away, away ! — the shaft, the shaft ! — the blazing fire flies ! Confusion ! — speed ! — the lava stream the lightning's wing defies ! The shaft ! — the shaft ! — down on the ground and let the demon ride Like the Sirocco on the blast — volcanos in their pride ! The choke-damp angel slaughters all — he spares no living soul ! He smites them with sulphureous brand — he blackens them like coal ! The young — the hopeful, happy young — fall with the old and gray, And oh, great God ! a dreadful doom, thus buried to decay Beneath the green and flowery sod whereon their friends remain — Disfigured, and perchance alive — their cries unheard and vain ! Oh, desolation ! thou art now a tyrant on thy throne, Thou smilest with sardonic lip to hear the shriek and groan ! To see each mangled, writhing corpse to raining eyes displayed — For hopeless widows now lament, and orphans wail dismayed. Behold thy work ! The maid is there, her lover to deplore ; The mother wails her only child, that she shall see no more ; An idiot sister laughs and sings — oh, melancholy joy ! While bending o'er her brother dead, she opes the sightless eye. 18 206 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. Apart, an aged man appears, like some sage David oak, Shedding his tears, like leaves that fall beneath the woodman's stroke ; His poor old heart is rent in twain — he stands and weeps alone — The sole supporter of his house, the last, the best, is gone ! This is thy work, fell tyrant ! — this the miner's common lot ! In danger's darkling den he toils, and dies lamented not. The army has its pensioners — the sons of ocean rest, When battle's crimson flag is furled, on bounty's downy breast ; But who regards the mining slave, that for his country's wealth Resigns his sleep, his pleasures, home, his freedom and his health ! From the glad skies and fragrant field he cheerfully descends, And eats his bread in stenchy caves, where his existence ends. Aye, this is he whom masters grind, and level with the dust — The slave that barters life, to gain the pittance of a crust. Go, read your pillar'd calendar, the record that will tell How many victims of the mine in yonder churchyard dwell ! Hath honor's laurels ever wreathed the despot's haughty brow ? Hath pity's hallowed gems appeared when he in death lay low ? Unhonored in his memory, despised his worthless name — Who wields in life the iron rod, in death no tear can claim ! A great number of accidents have taken place on Monday morn- ings, when the miners descend after having quitted the mine on Saturday. M. Bischof reports that, having visited a gallery which had been abandoned for several days, he found the gases liquated to such an extent that they were inflammable in every part of the area ; detonating in the middle portion, while the almost pure atmospheric air filled the lower part. It is very dangerous to allow these liquations to accumulate ; it is necessary that the current of air be sufficiently active to produce im- mediately the diffusion of the gas in the air and its withdrawal out of the mine before the mixture has become explosive. But notwith- standing the precautions of ventillation — aerage — many mines would be completely unworkable if there had not been found the special means of guarding them from the fire-damp — grisou. The coal beds most dangerous — as has been previously stated — are those which are the most valuable for their good qualities; science and industry have therefore been called on to seek the means of combating the effects of the grisou, and we proceed to expose those which have been suc- cessively employed : Means to Check Fire-Damp. — The first idea which presented itself to the explorers was to disembarrass themselves of the gas by ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 207 allowing the liquation to establish itself and by setting it on fire, so as to burn it, in the absence of the miners. For this purpose a work- man, clothed in vestments of moistened leather, his visage protected by a mask with spectacles of glass, advanced, crawling on his belly, in the galleries where the fire-damp was known to exist, and holding forward a long pole, at the end of which was a lighted torch ; he sounded thus the irregularities of the roof, the front of the excavations, and set fire to the grisous. This method, which has been employed, within twenty years, in the basin of the Loire, and even occasionally at the present day, in some of the English fiery collieries, has nu- merous inconveniencies. The workmen, whom they called penitents, were exposed to dangers to such an extent, that a great number per- ished. When the gas, instead of being simply inflammable, was deto- nating, the solidity of the mine was constantly compromised by the explosions ; the fire attacked the coal and the timbers ; the gases, which resulted from the combustion, became stationary in the works, and menaced the workmen with asphyxia ; at length it became neces- sary, in certain mines, to repeat, even three or four times a day, this perilous operation, and yet it in no respect obviated the rapid disen- gagements which caused these numerous accidents. This method was equally in use in the English collieries ; only the penitent or fire- man, instead of carrying the fire himself, caused it to be moved by means of a slider placed over a line of poles connected together, and directed by a system of pullies and cords. The danger was thus di- minished for the fireman, who retired into a niche formed in a neigh- boring gallery ; but in the meantime many were still overtaken, and besides, all the other inconveniencies remained. The method called the eternal lamps was evidently better. It con- sisted in placing towards the top of the excavation, and in all the points where the fire-damp collected, lamps constantly lighted, which burned the grisou as fast as it was produced ; the danger was dimin- ished in a considerable degree, because there could not be formed such large accumulations of inflammable or detonating gas. This mode of proceeding was, however, renounced in a great number of mines, on account of the production of carbonic acid and of azote ; a produc- tion the more sensitive, since, to facilitate the Liquation of the gases, the air ought not to be very strongly agitated. At length it was devised to profit by the property possessed by pla- tina in sponge to facilitate the combustion of the hydrogen with which 208 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. it was brought in contact, and pellets, composed of one part of platina and two parts of clay, were made, and placed near the points at which the grisou or fire-damp concentrated. But all these efforts, based upon the incited combustion of the inflammable gas, proved to be only dangerous and incomplete palliatives, which substituted for a great peril a series of other dangers, less imminent, doubtless, but equally distressing. From that time all the well disposed continued to search for pro- cesses based upon another principle. Two only could conduct to a good result: 1. The withdrawal of the gases out of the mine ; 2. A mode of lighting different from that which was in use, and which would suffice for the purposes of the miner without compromising his safety. The principle of withdrawing — entrainement — of the gases by a rapid ventillation is, without contradiction, that which was the most natural to conceive ; because it was already applied to all the other deleterious gases. Dr. Vehrle proposed at first to effect the decanting of the gases by making the excavations (stalls ?) communicate by ascending passages with a gallery embracing all the works, and unit- ing with an ascending shaft. But this project, otherwise impracti- cable, offered a remedy for only a part of these accidents ; the execu- tion alone of the necessary works could not have been made without the greatest danger, if these works had been undertaken in the coal ; while, in the rocks of the roof, the expenses would have rendered them impracticable. But a good ventillation alone could not suffice to place the miners in security ; it was an excellent auxiliary means, but it always left unsolved this important problem : tlie prevention of the inflammation of the gases which disengage themselves from the sur- faces of the stalls. The lighting alone could conduct to the solution of this problem, and numerous attempts had been made, under this head, when Davy discovered the safety-lamp. Before him, they had operated with a small number of lights, placed in the lowest positions, and at a dis- tance from the stalls ; the workmen kept these lamps in view, and when the blue nimbus, the indication of hydrogen, began to show itself, they extinguished them or withdrew, covering them with their hats. They made use of, also, in the most infected mines, various phosphores- cent matters, and particularly a mixture of flour and lime formed from oyster shells, called Canton phosphorus, although the uncertain and ephemeral light which these materials produced, was but a very feeble ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION- 209 resource. At length it was observed that the pro to-carbonated hydro- gen was somewhat difficult of ignition, and that the red heat was in- sufficient to accomplish it ; thus it was practicable to carry a red coal, or a red hot iron into the fire damp without inflaming it, the white heat alone having the necessary temperature. They profited by this discovery by lighting the stalls by means of the steel-mill, previously described by Prof. Ansted, and such was the state of affairs when Sir H. Davy took up the subject, and commenced his brilliant experi- ments. From the foregoing, the reader will have gleaned a true under- standing of the nature of those accumulations in mines, which render ventillation a subject of such vast importance. The means adopted and suggested to prevent the explosion of these gases are innumera- ble ; and notwithstanding that the discovery of the safety lamp, by which the presence of noxious gases can always be determined, has been a source of great moment and security, yet its use has not been effective in assisting to expel them, or of suggesting any certain method of ventillation, beyond the actual discovery of what ought to be expelled. It exhibits, infallibly, the actual presence of the gases ; but it has not led to the means by which they can be dispersed and driven out ; so that the very dangers which attended mining previous to its introduction, attend it now, and always will attend it until some means can be devised to drive them out of the mines as fast as they accumulate. A principle of ventillation, for example, that will answer the purpose during the summer season, would not answer at all (in many cases, at least in our region,) during the winter, notwith- standing the fact that a difference of but a few degrees occurs in the temperature of the mines, during the year. This, of course, arises from external causes, which must always govern the atmosphere of the mine. Thus, when the external atmosphere is varied, and sud- denly changed by winds, lightning, frost, snow, and long continued rains, the gases in the mine will be found to accumulate, to disperse, or to be borne out of the mine, as the case may be. They are always regulated by the density of atmospheric air, and rendered explosive just in proportion as they unite with it; here the safety-lamp is useful, because, however explosive the combination may be, it will conduct the viewer safely through it ; but, then, here is where ventil- lation fails, for the admixture cannot be disunited, or expelled, except in its own time and way. 18* 2B 210 OFF-HAND S KETCHES. The most general plan of ventillation adopted in this region is simply this: The atmospheric air is admitted at or near the mouth of the slope. After traversing the mine through every avenue, the current is drawn through an escape-hole, over which a furnace is erected, and a regular and intense heat kept up. The draft thus afforded (there being no other escape) is generally very strong, and as the current of air is borne along, it bears with it all the noxious gases in the mine. Whenever these gases accumulate in workings where the current of atmospheric air does not penetrate sufficiently, they are dispersed by the miners, by means of canvasses or banners ; and when there is not sufficient air, boys are stationed with revolving fans, by which the air is kept comparatively clean. These, with like devices, varied as circ*mstances may suggest, are the means resorted to in the anthracite regions of this State. There is a viewer for each mine, who enters with a Davy-lamp, and always reports the actual condition of the mine before the miners go to work. MORAL CONDITION OF MINERS, ETC. The mining population of our coal regions is almost exclusively composed of foreigners, principally from England and Wales, with a few Irish and Scotchmen. The former have a decided preference for working in small veins, and they can use the pick in the narrowest space, right and left, and in all positions. They cannot, of course, swing it over their shoulders, or give it the force which is deemed so necessary for effective work ; but, holding it in front, and making short, quick strokes, the pick is still as effective in their hands, in a space of three or four feet, (or even less) as would be in less cir- c*mscribed limits. This predilection of the English miners is principally attributable to the fact, that the coal veins of their mining regions are usually thin, and having entered them at a very early age, they have thus formed a preference for thin veins, and a prejudice against large ones, where it is necessary to blast, use ladders, &c. Every miner carries his lamp on his cap, to which it is hooked. (Fig. 58.) While pursuing their labors in the mines, they soon become thoroughly covered over with the black coal dust, and their clothes, which are of the coarsest fabrics, rudely patched together, are saturated with water. The mines are damp, and the floor usually full of coal-mud and water : ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 211 hence the miners and laborers wear heavy coarse shoes, with the soles covered with tacks. Although ex- tremely healthy as a class, they are nevertheless, pale and some- what delicate in the face, and their eyes may be said to be prominent. Their features are not regular, and they cannot justly lay claim to manly beauty. They know little but what pertains to their subterraneous em- ployments ; making that the subject of their discussions, their jests and their pastimes, they have little care for things concerning the upper crust. They are, to a certain de- gree, superstitious ; even the most intelligent of them yield to it. For example, it is considered an evil omen when a stranger, in entering the mine, begins to whistle. It pro- duces a certain effect among them, and destroys, in a measure, their good spirits. A miner never whistles, and when, occasionally, they hum a tune, it is more of a soft and plaintive character than the popular songs of the day. The employ- ment seems well calculated to indulge thought — calm, complacent ideas. There is no wildness, no ambition ; they seek only contentment, and are satisfied with their lot. Visitors to the mines are cordially received, and every attention is shown them by the workmen. As a stranger would derive little sat- isfaction from his visit, unless he placed himself in the care of some one thoroughly acquainted with the mine, the workmen observe the old established custom of requesting every visitor to pay his footing. that is, the present of twenty-five or fifty cents (or a dollar or five dollars, if you like) to the person or persons who "show him the ele- phant." This request is generally made when the parties are the greatest distance from the slope, and when the visitor would naturally apprehend some difficulty in finding his way out ! But, inasmuch as the conductor is withdrawn from his labor, and the visitor, without PIG. 58. — A COAL MINER. 212 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. him, would be liable to get in the way of the workmen, and perhaps meet with some accident — besides his disability to understand the operations — the payment of the " footing" should never be neglected nor begrudged. The ladies, of course, pass free — the only charge being a smile or so. The moral condition of the mining population of the anthracite regions of this State, is vastly superior to that of the same class in any other country. They reside in rude cottages, it is true, and do not enjoy the same elegancies of life which are obtained in many other industrial pursuits ; but they have abundance to eat, good clothes to wear, and money in their pockets. A more generous-hearted people, more devoted to their friends, and faithful in their domestic attachments, does not live. Upon their arrival here, where labor is usually plenty, the first fruits of their industry are carefully hoarded, and when a sufficient sum is gathered together, it is sent home to cheer and bless some kindly-remembered relative or friend. Thou- sands of dollars are thus annually sent off by the humble laborers of the coal regions ; and the fact illustrates the golden trait of our nature, which must in all time to come hide a catalogue of sins. Strange are the incidents which sometimes occur in virtue of this noble impulse. Not long ago, an honest and industrious miner, after several months unceasing toil, had laid by a sufficient sum to pay the passage of his wife and several children from England to this country, besides a handsome sum for necessary expenses. The passage had been secured, and the money forwarded. The wife and her children in due time arrived ; but, alas ! where was the kind husband and father ? In his grave. A day or two previous to their arrival, he had fallen at his work in the mine — a victim to an explosion of fire-damp. The career of the miner, repairing daily to his subterranean work- shop is, indeed, full of unfortunate streaks ; dismal as solitude ; black as the earth he delves. The scarred chieftain knows less danger, and much more glory. But although the lot of the miner is little to be envied, it must be said, to the eternal credit of our country and its institutions, that it is here stripped of the odious features which characterize it in other countries. To exhibit the contrast between the mining dis- tricts of England and our own country, we have prepared the fol- lowing items from the report of the investigating commissioners, ap- pointed by the British Parliament, a few years ago. The degrading ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 213 practice of employing children and females in mines does not prevail here. Boys are employed to drive the horses, and to assort the coal as it descends into the shutes from the breaker ; but these duties are light, and suited to their capacity. Females, old or young, have never been engaged in the mines of this country; (thank heaven, our countrymen appreciate them too highly not to offer them better engagements, and more pleasant and appropriate employment!) In 1841 the commissioners proceeded to investigate the condition of the laborers, male and female, in the mines of Great Britain. Of the number of children employed in the iron, coal, tin, and lead mines, it is difficult to ascertain, or to form any nice estimate ; but the number must be very large. In many pits they are set to work at a very early age, some at six years, and at all ages beyond that. Ac- cording to the evidence of Dr. Mitchell, the proportion of men to boys in the iron-stone pits of Staffordshire is one hundred to seventy ; in the coal pits it is one hundred to ninety. Many of these pits, espe- cially the iron-stone, are low, and horses cannot be employed, which is the principal reason of there being so large a proportion of boys in comparison with the men, to push the skiffs or carriages to the foot of the shaft. In some of the mines the improper and reprehensible practice of employing female children, to perform precisely the same kind of labor as that performed by the boys, prevails. The practice of em- ploying females in coal pits, says one of the commissioners, is fla- grantly disgraceful to a Christian, as well as a civilized country. * * * In theFlockton and Thornhill pits the system is even more indecent ; for though the girls are clothed, at least three-fourths of the men for whom they hurry work, are in a state of almost complete nudity, and in this state they assist one another to fill the corves eighteen or twenty times a day. I have seen this done myself, not once or twice, but frequently. " Girls/' continues the report, " from five to eighteen, perform all the work of boys. There is no distinction whatever in their coming up the shafts, or in going down — in the mode of hurrying or thrusting — in the weights or corves, or in the distances they are hurried — in wages or dues. They are to be found alike vulgar in manner and obscene in language ; but who can feel surprised at their debased condition, when they are known to be constantly associated, and associated only with men and boys, living and laboring in a state of disgusting nakedness and brutality ; while they have themselves 214 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. no other garment than a ragged shirt, or in the absence of that, a pair of broken trowsers, to cover their persons I" In the mining districts of Scotland, the employment of females in this description of labor, is generally considered to be so degrading, that " other classes of operatives refuse intermarriage with the daugh- ters of colliers who have wrought in the pits." The report of the collieries, &c, in the east of Scotland, by Mr. Franks, contains correct and authentic information as to the condi- tion of the laborers employed in them. The descriptions are illus- trated by drawings, exhibiting the operations and position of the children in the mines. The following extract from his report will enable our readers to form a conception of the places and kind of work devolving upon the children and young persons pursuing their several occupations : " Many of the mines in the east of Scotland are conducted in the most primitive manner ; the one horse gin to draw up the bucket, no separation in the shaft, the ventillation carried on in many places by means of old shafts left open, &c. The negligence of underground workings corresponds with the above, the roads being carelessly at- tended to, and the workings very irregularly carried on, so that the oppression of the labor is as much increased by the want of good superintendence as by the irregularity of the work-people them- selves. The roads are, most commonly, wet, but in some places so much so as to come up to the ankle ; and where the roofs are soft, the dripping and slushy state of the entire chamber is such that none can be said to work in it in a dry condition, and the coarse apparel the labor requires absorbs so much of the drainage of the water as to keep the workmen as thoroughly saturated as if they were working continually in water. " The workings in the narrow seams are sometimes 100 to 200 yards from the main roads, so that the females have to crawl back- wards and forwards with their small carts, in seems in many cases not exceeding 20 to 28 inches in height." In fact, says a very intelligent witness, (Mr. fm. Hunter, the min- ing foreman of Ormiston colliery,) upon the occasion of being author- ized to issue an order to exclude women and children from the col- liery, " in fact, women always did the lifting, or heavy part of the work, and neither they nor the children were treated like human beings, nor are they where they are employed. Females submit to ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 215 work in places where no man or even lad could be got to labor in ; they work on bad roads, up to their knees in water, in a posture nearly double. They have swelled haunches and ankles, and are pre- maturely brought to the grave, or what is worse, a lingering exist- ence." " In surveying the workings of an extensive colliery under ground," says Kobert Bold, the eminent miner, " a married woman came forward, groaning under an excessive weight of coals, trembling in every nerve, and almost unable to keep her knees from sinking from under her. On coming up, she said in a plaintive and melan- choly voice, ' Oh, sir, this is sore, sore, sore work ! I wish to God that the first woman who tried to bear coals had broken her back, and never would have tried it again.' " Now, when the nature of this horrible labor is taken into consid- eration, the extreme severity, its regular duration of from 12 to 14 hours daily, and sometimes much longer; the damp, heated, and deleterious atmosphere, in which the work is carried on ; the tender age and sex of the workers ; when it is considered that such labor is performed, not in isolated instances, selected to excite compassion, but that it may be regarded as the type of the every day existence of hundreds of our fellow creatures — a picture is presented of deadly physical oppression and systematic slavery, of which those unac- quainted with such facts would not credit as existing in the British dominions. We may add, as worthy of remark, that to this labor, which is at once so repulsive and severe, the girls are invariably sent at an ear- lier age than boys — from a notion very generally entertained amongst parents, that they are more acute and obedient. Such is a sample of British slavery; — let us hereafter hear no more of the supposed horrors of negro slavery from that quarter! The stain, John Bull, is on your own hands ! MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS. Coal, observes an anonymous writer, is evidently a result of the decomposition of the compound of bodies from which it is obtained. It consists of the greatest part of the earthy principle of these com- pound bodies, with which a part of the saline principle, and some of the phlogiston of the decomposed oil, are fixed and combined very intimately. Coal can never be formed but by the phlogiston of a body which has been in an oily state ; hence it cannot be formed bv 216 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. sulphur, phosphorus, metals, nor by any other substance the phlo- giston of which is not in an oily state. Every oily matter treated with fire in close vessels, furnishes true coal ; so that whenever a charry residuum is left, we may be certain that the substance em- ployed contains oil. The inflammable principle of coal, although it proceeds from oil, certainly is not oil, but pure phlogiston, since coal added to sulphuric acid can form sulphur ; to phosphoric acid, can form phosphorus, &c, and since oil can produce none of these effects till it has been decom- posed and reduced to the state of coal. Besides, the phenomena ac- companying the burning coal are different from those which happen when oily substances are burnt. The flame of charcoal is not so bright as that of oil, and produces no flame or soot. All the phlogiston of coal is not burnt in the open air, particularly when the combustion is slow. One part of it exhales without decom- position, and forms a vapor, or an invisible and insensible gas. This vapor, (which is, or at least contains a great deal of fixed air,) is found to be very pernicious, and to affect the animal system in such a man- ner as to occasion death in a very short time. For this reason it is dangerous to remain in a close room or place where charcoal or any other sort of coal is burnt. Persons struck by this vapor are stunned, faint, suffer a violent headache, and fall down senseless and motion- less. The best method of recovering them is, simply, timely exposure to the open air, and by making them swallow vinegar, and breathe its steam. Among coals considerable difference is observable, which proceeds from difference in the bodies from which they are made ; some coals, particularly, are more combustible than others. This combustibility seems to depend on the greater or less quantity of saline principle they contain ; that is, the more of the saline principle it contains, the more easily it decomposes and burns. This difference in coal varies in about the same proportion that the difference in the properties of various kinds of wood varies when exposed to fire. The difference in coal, unlike that in wood, relates also to the localities where it is found ; it is, therefore, rarely that the opposite extremes of its ana- lytical properties are united in the same spot. We append an analy- sis of these two extremes — the first being that of the purest and best coal, and the latter the inferior and least valuable. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 217 ANALYSIS OF ANTHRACITE. i Carbon, .90 per cent. Volatile matter, 6£ " Ashes, 3| ." 100 {Carbon, ...... 77 per cent. Volatile matter, 11 Ashes, 12 " 100 This difference in the quality of coal is again perceptible in refer- ence to its weight. "We append the following, which will exhibit the character of our anthracites according to the weight of each respec- tively, per cubic yard. WEIGHT OF ANTHRACITE COAL. FIRST, OR SCHUYLKILL REGION. L ocalities proceeding from West to East. Weight of a cubic yard in lbs. Lykens' Valley, • . 2224 Stony Creek, six mile openings, .... 2244 Big Flats, about 2351 Kausch Gap, . 2453 Lorberry Creek, . . . ... . 2484 Pottsville, mean 2504 Tamaqua, Vein N - . - . . 2700 Lehigh, Mauch Chunk, 2615 " Nesquehoning, 2646 SECOND, OR MIDDLE REGION. Localities proceeding from West to East. Weight of a cubic yard in lb«. "West Mahanoy Coal, 2313 Hazleton, 2615 Girardville, . . 2700 Beaver Meadow, 2700 The Pennsylvania anthracite appears to be altogether heavier than the European, as will appear from the following : EUROPEAN. South Wales, (Swansea,) ..... 2131 France, (Grenoble,) , 1809 Black Spring Gap, 2351 19 2C 218 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. PENNSYLVANIA!*. Wilkesbarre, (Baltimore co.) .... 2484 Pottsville, 2649 Tamaqua, heaviest, . ... . . 2808 The bituminous coals of the United States are also considerably heavier than those of Europe. "With but one or two exceptions, all coals of the United States exceed one ton in weight to the cubic yard, while there is no instance of the bituminous coal of Europe reaching that weight. Prof. Johnson, who conducted, by authority of Congress, a series of experiments on American coals, applicable to steam navigation, and to other purposes, in his report to that body, in 1844, says that the justly celebrated foreign bituminous coals of New Castle, Liver- pool, Scotland, Pictou, and Sidney — coals which constitute the present reliance of the great lines of Atlantic steamers — are fully equalled, or rather surpassed in strength, by the analogous coals of Eastern Vir- ginia ; that they are decidedly surpassed by all the free-burning coals of Maryland and Pennsylvania, and that an equally decided advan- tage in steam-generating power is enjoyed by the anthracites over the foreign coals tried whether we consider them under equal weights or equal bulks. Mr. Johnson remarks, that coal, " when sold by weight, and used on shore, the weight per cubic foot is a point of little moment. Space for storage is easily obtained. But, in steam navigation, bulk, as well as weight, demands attention ; and a difference of twenty per cent., which experiment shows to exist between the highest and lowest average weight of a cubic foot of different coals, assumes a value of no little magnitude." This is obviously true, since, if other things be equal, the length of a voyage must depend on the amount of evapo- rative power afforded by the fuel which can be stowed in the bunkers of a steamer, always of limited capacity. GENERAL FEATURES OE PENNSYLVANIA ANTHRACITE. The anthracites have specific gravities, varying from P39 to 1*61 ; retain their form when exposed to a heat of ignition, and undergo no proper intumescence while parting with the small portion of volatile matter which £hey contain ; or, if changed at all, are only disinte- grated into angular fragments. Their flame is generally short, of a ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 219 blue color, and consequently of little illuminating power. They are ignited with difficulty, give an intense concentrated heat, but gene- rally become extinct while yet a considerable quantity remains un- burnt in the grate. In experimenting with American coals, Prof. Johnson thus de- scribes the differences between the red and white ash coals of our region : FIRST, OF THE RED-ASH, PEACH MOUNTAIN. The sample exhibited a deep jet-black color, an uneven splintery fracture ; a lustre varying from dull to shining, according to the di- rection in which the fracture is made. Like all the other anthracites, it was wholly unaffected by atmospheric influences in a period of eighteen months, during which time they were in my charge. This sample is more easily separated at the surfaces of deposition than most of the white-ash coals, but less so than that of Lykens' Valley. It has no exterior indication of impurity, such as discolora- tion from oxide of iron, or efflorescence of metallic salts. It has certain surfaces polished and minutely striated, appearing as if they had been subjected to friction under intense pressure. This feature is not, however, of so frequent occurrence in this, as in many other samples of anthracite. Its specific gravity, determined by two specimens, was found to be 1*465 and 1*4632 — the mean of which enables us to calculate the weight of a cubic foot of solid coal at 91*505 pounds. But the weight of 70 charges of two cubic feet each, in the state of lumps, gave 37*7939 pounds per cubic foot, proving that the actual weight in the market is but 0*5878 of the calculated weight in the mine. The same data prove that 42*64 cubic feet of space will be required for one gross ton. f Carbon, .. . . . . . 86*087 Analysis < Volatile matter, ..... 6*965 ( Earthy matter, . " . . . . . 6*948 SECOND, OF THE WHITE-ASH, SUMMIT HILL. The aspect and character of this coal leaves no doubt that it will remain for any desired length of time, either under shelter or in the open air, without material change. 220 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. The coal was received generally in lumps, requiring to be reduced in order to be burned advantageously on the grate. Its aspect is that of most of the harder anthracites, possessing a deep black color, shining uneven and splintery fracture, with occasional exposure of conchoidal forms ; a striated, rather grayish appearance, generally indicative of considerable portions of earthy impurity, marks certain surfaces. The seams of deposition are seldom followed by the frac- tures. The specific gravity of two specimens was found to be 1*6126 and 1*5679, from which the calculated weight per cubic foot are 100*79 snd 97*99 pounds respectively, or on an average, 99*39 pounds. (Carbon, . . . . . . . 88*052 Analysis \ Volatile matter, 5*235 (Earthy matter, .. . ... . 6*663 The foregoing tables will, doubtless, give a satisfactory exhibit as to the relative value of the different coals named for steam navigation, iron making, or for generating steam ordinarily. For stove use, the following experiment will determine the respective value of the white and red-ash varieties. Two rooms of nearly the same size, and having the same temperature, were selected to ascertain how many pounds of each kind would be required to heat them to a temperature of 65 de- grees, during a period of fifteen hours, when the temperature out of doors, at 9 A. M., was at ten degrees below the freezing point. Two days were occupied in the trial, so that the red and white-ash coals might be used in alternate rooms. Fires were made at 9 A. M. and continued until 12 P. M. Two thermometers (one in each room,) were suspended at the greatest distance from the grates, and the tem- perature was carefully registered every hour. The result was as follows : thirty-one pounds, each day, of the Schuylkill red-ash coal, gave a mean temperature of 64 degrees ; and thirty-seven pounds, each day, of the Lehigh wliite-ashy taken from a vein of high repute, gave a mean temperature of 63 degrees — thus making 2000 pounds of the red-ash to be equal to 2*387 pounds of the white-ash, or red-ash coal at $5.50 per ton, to be equal to white-ash ash at $4.61. This, says Mr. Taylor, settles the question between the two coals on the score of economy. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 221 COMPARATIVE VALUE OF ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS COALS. An impression has long prevailed that, for purposes of steam navigation, Cumberland coal was generally superior to anthracite, and it always enjoyed greater favor in the market. This impres- sion must be destroyed — for a greater mistake never existed on the public mind. A series of experiments were recently instituted on several steamers of the United States Navy, under order of the government, the result of which is a triumphant vindication of an- thracite coal, not only for steam vessels, but for generating steam under all circ*mstances — broadly establishing its vast superiority over bituminous and every other known coal. These experiments were brought about principally through the instrumentality of the Hon. James Cooper, our distinguished senator in Congress. The previous experiments of Prof. Johnson were unsatisfactory, because the tests were prosecuted on too small a scale to ascertain the real merits of anthracite ; and in the manner of burning it, he committed a mistake which led him greatly to depreciate its value compared with Cumberland coal, in equal weight. These mistakes were apparent to Mr. Cooper, and he therefore took up the subject, and called the attention of Congress to it. A resolution offered by him was passed at once, requiring the Secretary of the Navy to institute experiments, the result of which we shall lay before the reader. Mr. Cooper resides at Pottsville, and his exertions in asserting, and thus establishing, with the broad seal of the United States government, the superiority of anthracite over all other coah, are deserving, and will receive, the lasting thanks of the thousands engaged in the trade of Pennsylvania. Experiments with Bituminous Ooal, made with the boilers of the United States Steamer Fulton, at the New York Navy Yard, January, 1852. The temperature of the water in the boilers being at 38° F., and the tempera- ture of the boiler room 18°, the fires were lighted at ten hours thirty minutes, A. M. At eleven hours forty minutes, A. M., the temperature of the water was 212° F., and steam began to be generated at the atmospheric pressure. Time raising steam, seventy minutes. The temperature of the boiler-room had now increased from 18° to 32° F. At eleven hours fifty-four minutes, A. M. the steam pressure in the boilers was thirty pounds per square inch above the atmosphere. Time of obtaining thirty pounds of steam, one hour twenty-four minutes from a temperature of 32° F. Up to this time there had been fed into the furnaces one 19* 222 OFF-HAND SKETCHES. thousand pounds of dry pine wood, equal to five hundred pounds of coal, and two thousand eight hundred and twenty-six pounds of (Cumberland) bituminous coal. Total, three thousand three hundred and twenty-six pounds. The engine was now set in operation to work off all the steam, which the above amount of coal would generate, no more being fed to the furnaces. In fifty- three minutes the steam pressure was reduced from forty pounds to five pounds, and the number of double strokes of piston made from forty-one to seven, when the engine was stopped. During the time the engine was in operation, the steam was cut off at half-stroke. The engine consisted of one cylinder, fifty inches in diameter, and ten feet four inches stroke. The space between the cut-off valve and piston, including clear- ance, to he filled with steam per stroke is 3*094 cubic feet. The calculation of the amount of water evaporated is made from the quantities of steam measured out by the cylinder, divided by the relative bulks of steam of the experimental pressures and the water from which it is generated. The initial pressure of the steam in the cylinder is taken at one pound less than in the boilers. The space displacement of piston filled with steam, per stroke, is 70-448 cubic feet, to which must be added the above 3-094 cubic feet, making a total of 73-542 cubic feet. Pressure above atmos- Number of double strokes Cubic feet of water Time. — Minutes. phere, per square inch, in pounds. of piston made. evaporated. 6 32>4 41 10.326 5 25 34 7.311 5 ml 16i| 32 ' 6.483 5 31M 5.879 5 31 5.352 5 14 30 ' 4.796 5 11J4 26 3.797 5 9 23 3.075 5 7 H 21 2.631 5 12 1.393 2 ^74 7 0.868 51.911 Taking the weight of a cubic foot of sea water at 64*3 pounds, the total weight evaporated is (51-911 X 64-3)=3337-877 pounds. The boilers of the Fulton con- tained 82-000 pounds of water at the initial temperature of 32° P., which was raised to 212° F., and 3337-877 pounds of it evaporated by three thousand three hundred and twenty-six pounds of coal. Now it requires five times and a half as much caloric to evaporate a given bulk of water from a temperature 212° F., so as to raise it to that temperature from 32° F. The quantity of fuel, therefore, expended in raising the water from the initial temperature to that of 212° F., compared to that expended in evaporating the 3337-877 pounds from that temperature, will be as (82-000 X 180°)=14,760,- 000 to (3337-877 X 990°)=3,304,498-23, or as 4-4666 to 1-000; consequently ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 223 -i22! = 744-6 pounds of coal were consumed in evaporating 3337'87 pounds of sea-water, or 4*483 pounds of water per pound of coal. It was intended to have made, on the following day, an experiment, under precisely the same circum- stances as above, with anthracite ; hut it was found impossible from the presence of ice to work the engine, the experiment was therefore only made so far as re- gards the time of getting up steam, with the following results, viz : The fires were lighted with the same quantity and kind of wood, and the same quantity of coal that had been used the day previous. At seven hours and twenty minutes, A. M. the temperature of the water in the boiler being 38° F., and that of the boiler room 32° F., with the natural draft, the temperature of the water at eight hours and five minutes was 212° (steam,) and the boiler room 43, F. Time to generate steam, forty-five minutes. At eight hours and twenty minutes the steam pressure in the boiler was thirty pounds per square inch. Time of obtaining thirty pounds of steam from water at 38° F. was one hour. With the bituminous coal it will be seen that it required seventy minutes to obtain steam from water at the temperature of 32° F., while it only required forty-five minutes with the anthracite ; being a difference of time in this respect of about thirty-six per cent, of the bituminous time. The data for a comparison of the evaporative values of the coals was obtained by another experiment as follows : Experiments with White Ash Anthracite made with the boilers of the United States Steamer Fulton, in New York Bay, January 1, 1852. This experiment was made with the steamer under way, while steaming with steady pressure of steam and revolutions of the wheel, as follows : Steam pressure [initial) in cylinder per square inch above the atmosphere, twenty-five pounds ; double strokes of piston per minute, twenty-one and one- third ; cutting off at from commencement of stroke, three-eighths ; consumption of coal per hour, eighteen hundred pounds. From the above data, there was filled per stroke 52-837 cubic feet of the space displacement of the piston, to which add 3-096 cubic feet of space comprised be- tween the cut-off valve and piston, making a total of 55 - 931 cubic feet of steam of twenty-five pounds pressure, which would be per minute 55 - 931 X42%=2386 - 39 cubic feet, and per hour 143,183-40 cubic feet. Dividing this last number by the relative bulks of steam of the pressure generated, and the water from which it was generated, we obtain 1 "' 8 8 4 3 " lo =209-332 cubic feet of sea-water, which at 64-3 pounds per cubic foot, amounts to 13,460-047 pounds, evaporated by eighteen hundred pounds of coal, or seven thousand four hundred and seventy- pounds of sea-water per pound of coal. -3. Experiment with White Ash Anthracite Coal made with the boilers of the pwnp- ing-engine at the United States Dry Bock, Neio York Navy Yard. A comparative experiment was made with the boilers of the pumping-engine at the New York Navy Yard, in October, 1851, on the comparative advantages 224 • OFF-HAND SKETCHES. of anthracite and bituminous coals ; all the conditions were as nearly alike as practicable. With the anthracite coal a combustion of nine hundred and eighty pounds per hour, evaporated a sufficient quantity of water to supply the engine with steam of twelve pounds pressure above the atmosphere, per square inch, for four hundred and twenty-five double strokes of piston per hour, the steam pressures being alike in both cases ; the economical values of the coals will be represented by the number of double strokes of piston made, divided by the quantity of fuel per given unit of time; or will be, anthracite ^=0*4337: bituminous -" = 0*2673, or the anthracite is better than the bituminous in the proportion 0-4, 33T 0^*2631 " It is proper to remark that these boilers were expressly designed for burning bituminous coal. COMPARISON. The coals used in these experiments were the kinds furnished by the agents of the government for the use of the United States Navy Yard and Steamers, and was taken indiscriminately from the piles in the yard without assorting. The bituminous was from the " Cumberland" mines. The anthracite was the kind known as "White Ash Schuylkill." From the preceding data, it appears that in regard to the rapidity of " getting up" steam, the anthracite exceeds the bituminous thirty-six per cent. That in economical evaporation per unit of fuel, the anthracite exceeds the bituminous in the proportion of 7*478 to 4*483 or 66*8 per cent. It will also be perceived, that the result of the third experiment on the boilers of the pumping-engine at the New York Dry Dock, which experiment was, entirely differently made and calculated from the first and second experiments, gave an economical superiority to the anthracite over the bituminous of 62 *i> per cent. ; a remarkably close approximation to the result obtained by the ex- periments on the " Fulton's" boilers, (66*8 per cent.,) particularly when it is stated that the boilers and grates of the pumping-engine were made with a view to burning bituminous coal, which has been used since their completion ; while those of the " Fulton" were constructed for the use of anthracite. The general characters of the boilers were similar, both having return drop flues. Thus it will be seen, from the experiments, that, without allowing for the difference of weight of coal that can be stowed in the same bulk, the engine using anthracite could steam about two-thirds longer than with bituminous. These are important considerations in favor of anthracite coal for the uses of the Navy; without taking into account the additional amount of anthracite more than bituminous that can be placed on board a vessel in the same bunkers, or the advantages of being free from smolce, which in a war-steamer may at times be of the utmost importance in concealing the movements of the vessel, and also the almost, if not altogether, entire freedom from spontaneous com- bustion. ANTHRACITE COAL FORMATION. 225 The results of the experiments made last spring on the United States steamer " Vixen" were so favorable, that I recommended to the Bureau of Construction,
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